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FOUR ANCIENT CULTURES.
Term Paper ID:19777
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Essay Subject:
Focuses on Rome (100 BC-300 AD), Egypt (4000-1500 BC), Greece (480-399 BC) & Japan (1-1800 AD). Describes & compares cultures, industries, social relations, freedoms, education.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Focuses on Rome (100 BC-300 AD), Egypt (4000-1500 BC), Greece (480-399 BC) & Japan (1-1800 AD). Describes & compares cultures, industries, social relations, freedoms, education.
Paper Introduction:
This paper will explain, compare and contrast the cultures and ways of life of the people in the following societies: Rome (100 BC 300 AD); Egypt (4000-1500 BC); Greece (480-399 BC); and Japan (1 1800 AD).
Greece (480-399 BC)
In ancient Greece during what was called the Golden Age (480-399 BC) the soil was poor--of 630,000 acres, only a third was suitable for cultivation, and the rest was impoverished by deforestation, meager rainfall, and rapid erosion by winter floods. However, the Greeks toiled to gather the surplus flow of headwaters into reservoirs, dike the channels of the streams to control the floods, reclaim the precious humus of the swamps, build thousands of irrigation canals, and patiently transplant vegetables to improve their size and quality. They alkalized the
Text of the Paper:
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Swine were herdedin the woods rich with acorns and nuts, poultry fertilized the farmyard,while bees provided the ancient substitute for sugar. Those whodid yield married late, usually near thirty, and then insisted upon bridesnot much older than fifteen.[5] Besides his wife, a Greek man could take a concubine, and the wifeusually accepted her with Oriental patience, knowing that the "second wife"when her charms wear off, will become in effect a household slave, and thatonly the offspring of the first wife are considered legitimate. There were walls enclosing a courtaround the house, from the court steps led to the roof, from this down intothe rooms. 1 (London: N.p., 1925), 17. Once the child was accepted into the familyit could not lawfully be exposed, and was reared with lavish affection. Every Greek was expected to have children, and all the forces ofreligion, property, and the state united to disapprove of childlessness.Where no offspring came, adoption was the rule. The Roman extractive industries were manned almost wholly by slavesor criminals, and the art of carburizing iron into steel had now spreadfrom Egypt throughout the Empire. Most of her life was spentin the women's quarters at the rear of the house; no male visitor was everadmitted there, nor did she appear when men visit her husband. Cereals took the formof porridge, flat loaves, or cakes, often mixed with honey. Flowers, too, became a cult in Japan, and the Japanese valued theirflowers as much as their cups for their tea ritual. The staple food of the Japanese people was rice, to which were addedfish, vegetables, sea-weed, fruit and meat according to income. Modesty, as distinct from fidelity, was not prominent among theEgyptians, they spoke of sexual affairs with directness. Cows, sheep, and goats gave three kindsof milk, from which the Romans made delectable cheeses. Thesewives still spun wool, scolded and educated their children, directedservants, careful administered their modest funds, and shared with theirhusbands in the immemorial worship of the household gods. [6]Ibid., 3 4. London: N.p., 1928.----------------------- [1]Will Durant, The Life of Greece (New York: Simon and Schuster,1966), 268. About the age of thirteen the successful student, ofeither sex, was graduated into a secondary or high school. Egyptian dwellings were mostly of mud, with woodwork like theJapanese lattice, or well-carved portals, and a roof strengthened with thetough and pliable trunks of the palm. [2]Ibid. [11]Ibid., 172. In the factories ofcentral Italy almost all were slaves, in those of north Italy there was agreater proportion of freemen. Cooper wasmined in small quantities, iron was imported from the Hittites, gold veinswere found along the eastern coast in Nubia. In a number of cases emancipation meant industrialization, and somewomen worked in shops or factories, especially in the textile trades, somebecame lawyers and doctors. Some labor-savingdevices were rejected because they might have caused technologicalunemployment. Her education was almost confined to householdarts, for the Athenian believed with Euripides that a woman was handicappedby intellect. The material used for the house was sometimesstucco, but usually sun-baked brick. From the papyrus plant Egyptianartisans made ropes, mats, sandals and paper. At 18 boys were enrolledinto the ranks of Athens' soldier youth, and trained for two years in theduties of citizenship and war. [13]Durant, Oriental Heritage, 851. Despite herimmorality it was Rome, not Greece, that raised the family to new heightsin the ancient world. Unmarried womenabove nineteen were considered "old maids", but they were rare. Parents guilty of infanticide were required by lawto hold the dead child in their arms for three days and nights. In factories no machinerywas available, but slaves could be had in abundance--and muscle power wascheap so there was no incentive to develop machinery. The Oriental nature of Greek marriages prevailed here--the bride wascut off from her kin, went to live almost as a menial in another home, andworshipped other gods. [12]James Murdoch, History of Japan, vol. The teacher's functionwas to produce scribes for the clerical work of the state. Salt was collected in salt pans from the sea, and traded in theinterior for slaves. Adultery lead to divorce only when committed by thewife. She could not make contracts, incur debts, or bringactions at law. Education, except inetiquette, was rarely wasted upon them, and fidelity was exacted on penaltyof death.[15] Contrary to the societies of Rome, Greece and Egypt, fertility wasnot encouraged in Samurai Japan. But he could not in Athenian law, sell the persons of his children;and each son, on marrying, escaped from parental authority, set up his ownhome, and became an independent person. Eggs were added and vegetables--particularlybeans, peas, cabbage, lentils, lettuce, onions, and garlic. For theman divorce was simple; he could dismiss his wife at any time, withoutstating the cause. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1954.Herodotus. Here they refine copper, coin money, print books, weave the richest stuffs with gold and silver flowers. The building trades were well organizedand specialized, and outstanding work was done in glass. Ladies wereforbidden to make a sound while eating or drinking; but men were expectedto indicate their appreciation of a host's generosity by a little gratefulbelching. Since thesecondary teachers were nearly always Greek freedmen, they naturallyemphasized Greek literature and history. However, the old Roman virtues--the mutualdevotion of parents and children, a sober sense of responsibility, anavoidance of extravagance or display--still survived in Roman homes. Bread and cake were seldom baked at home, but bought from womenpeddlers or in market stalls. They weremasters in the carving of wood; they made everything from boats andcarriages, chairs and beds, to handsome coffins. Few houses rose to more than two stories. Although incest was not uncommon among the Egyptian Pharaohs, for themost part the common people were monogamous. Japanese homes were made of wood and seldom rose beyond a story ortwo, due to the threat of earthquakes. The rich washed down their meals with wine,the poor with barley beer.[9] Having no metals, Egypt sought them in Arabia and Nubia. Egyptian workers made brick, cement and plaster of Paris; theyglazed pottery, blew glass, and glorified both with color. [3]Ibid., 24 . thus: They gather in the fruits of the earth with less labor than any other people...for they have not the toil of breaking up the furrow with the plough, or of hoeing, or of any other work which all other men must labor at to obtain a crop of corn; but when the river has come of its own accord and irrigated their fields, and having irrigated them has subsided, then each man sows his own land and turns his swine into it, and when the seed has been trodden into it by the swine he waits for harvest time; then . The Greeks considered romantic love to be a form of "possession" ormadness, and normally marriage was arranged by the parents or byprofessional matchmakers, with an eye not to love but to dowries. Nearly everything was cooked and dressed with oliveoil, as butter was hard to keep in the Mediterranean lands, and olive oiltook its place. The well-to-do had private gardens, carefully landscaped.[11]The rich Egyptians took the same pleasure as the Japanese in the beauty ofthe little things that surrounded them. There the woods were turned into shelter, fuel,and furniture, cattle were slain and dressed, grain was milled and baked,oil and wine were pressed, food was prepared and preserved, wool and flaxwere cleaned and woven; sometimes clay was turned into vessels, bricks, andtiles, and metal was beaten into tools. A rich house might have had a colonnaded porchfacing the street, and windows, but these were a luxury, and confined tothe upper story. The law struggled to encourageparentage among the freeborn, like the Greeks, but unlike the Greeks,infanticide was forbidden except in the case of infants deformed orincurably diseased. The ancient rural home--cottage, villa, orestate--was literally a manufactory, where the hands of men carried on adozen vital industries, and the skill of women filled the house with ascore of wholesome arts. Every square of ivory on theirjewel boxes had to be carved in relief and refined in precise detail. The entrance was usually a double door,floors of concrete or tile, and no carpets. The women wove and mended the ordinary clothing and bedding ofthe family, carded the wool, spun the thread, wove the cloth on theirlooms, embroidered, and practiced the art of unwinding the cocoons of thesilkworm and weaving the filaments into silk. On or before the tenth day after birth the child was formallyaccepted into the family with a religious ritual around the hearth, andreceives presents and a name. [17]Ibid., 34 . Men married their sisters not because familiarity had bred romance,but because they wished to enjoy the family inheritance, which passed downfrom mother to daughter.[1 ] The powers of the wife in Egypt diminished slowly over time, as theinfluence of the Greeks was so great that freedom of divorce, claimed inearlier times by the wife, became the exclusive privilege of the husband.Even then, however, the change was accepted only by the upper classes, theEgyptian commoner adhered to matriarchal ways. There was hardly a dwelling in Japan without a vaseof flowers in it. L. Theelder Seneca assumed widespread adultery among Roman women,[19] andalthough legislation kept women subject, custom made them free. In the richer homes, one or more rooms would beused for bathing, some sparkling with marble, glass, or silver fixtures andtaps, but the majority of the free Romans relied on the public baths. Concubinage was recognized by the law as a substitute for marriage,not as an accompaniment to it as in the Greek culture. At the same time law andpublic opinion accepted infanticide as a legitimate safeguard againstexcess population; any father could expose a newborn child to death eitheras doubtfully his, or as weak or deformed, and the children of slaves wereseldom allowed to live. Meat was arare dish except among the aristocracy and the soldiery. The Greek house was unpretentious, there being a taboo againstdisplay. Freedom in Japan was conceived in terms of the family rather than ofthe individual, success or failure, survival or death, came not to theseparate person but to the family. The Roman equivalent of our college and university education wasprovided in the schools of the rhetors, and pupils entered about theirsixteenth year. BibliographyDurant, Will. The education of girls was carried on athome, and was largely confined to "domestic science". There is scarce a house in this large capital where there is not something made or sold. In the homeshe was honored and obeyed in everything that did not contravene thepatriarchal authority of her mate. Screw pumps and waterwheels raised water out of mines or into irrigation canals. Higher education for menwas provided by professional rhetors and sophists, who offered instructionin oratory, science, philosophy, and history. Infants were exposed by leaving them in a largeearthenware vessel in a temple where it could soon be rescued if any wishedto adopt it. Greece (48 -399 BC) In ancient Greece during what was called the Golden Age (48 -399 BC)the soil was poor--of 63 , acres, only a third was suitable forcultivation, and the rest was impoverished by deforestation, meagerrainfall, and rapid erosion by winter floods.[1] However, the Greekstoiled to gather the surplus flow of headwaters into reservoirs, dike thechannels of the streams to control the floods, reclaim the precious humusof the swamps, build thousands of irrigation canals, and patientlytransplant vegetables to improve their size and quality. The well-to-do were hard put to it to keep count of their offspring. [8]Herodotus, Histories, Book II, tran. The exterior of the house was usually no more than a stout blankwall with a narrow doorway. London: N.p., 1925.Seneca the Elder. On graduating they were apprenticed to officials,who taught them through plenty of work. Horses werebred chiefly for war, hunting and sport, oxen drew the plow and the cart,mules bore burdens on their backs. The middle class dwellings in Rome were away from the city's centeron the main diverging roads. They were taught bytheir mothers or nurses to read and write and reckon, to spin and weave andembroider, to dance and sing and play some instrument, but outside ofSparta, girls took no part in public gymnastics. The workers were mostly freemen, partly slaves.In general every trade was a caste, and sons were expected to follow andtake over the occupations of their fathers. Translated by Cary. Dancing girls, in the mannerof Japan, were accepted into the best male society as producers ofentertainment and physical edification. Machinery was rare, because muscle was cheap, as in the Greekculture during the Golden Age. Temple students graduated tohigh schools attached to the offices of the state treasury. The detected procurer of abortion was banished andlost part of his property; if the woman died he was to be put to death.Children of any age remained under the authority of the father except whenthrice sold by him into bondage, or when formally emancipated.[2 ] Early childhood education came from the nurse, who was usually Greek. A man could notlegally have two concubines at once. Although the well-to-do woregarments that, though woven at home, were carded, cleaned ,bleached, andcut in a fullery. Our Oriental Heritage. There, in thefirst known School of Government, the young scribes were instructed inpublic administration. This paper will explain, compare and contrast the cultures and waysof life of the people in the following societies: Rome (1 BC-3 AD);Egypt (4 -15 BC); Greece (48 -399 BC); and Japan (1-18 AD). Then at 19 they were assigned to garrisonthe frontier, and entrusted for two years with the protection of thecity.[6] The traditional Greek family in the Golden Age was composed of thefather, the mother, sometimes a "second wife", their unmarried daughters,their sons, their slaves, and their sons' wives and children and slaves.The power of the father was extensive: he could expose the newborn child,sell the labor of his minor sons and unwedded daughters, give his daughtersin marriage, and under certain conditions, appoint another husband for hiswidow. Nuts were common, and condimentsabounded. The husband could dismiss his wife without compensation if hedetected her in adultery; if he divorced her for other reasons he wasrequired to turn over to her a substantial share of the family property.It has been said that no people, ancient or modern, have given women sohigh a legal status as did the inhabitants of the Nile Valley, andobedience of the husband to the wife was required in the marriage bond.Women held and bequeathed property in their own names. Their brick-and-stucco exteriors were stillbuilt, as before, in the plain and solid style, wasting no art on passers-by. by Cary (London: N.p., 19 1),14. Some delicate woolen fabrics were woven in factories;and flax turned by factories into linen garments for women andhandkerchiefs for men, and dyers colored and designed the cloth. All but the rarest European vegetables were grown, some of themin greenhouses for the winter trade. Factoriesproduced glass, brick, tiles, pottery, and metalware. Fish was both acommonplace and a delicacy, the poor man bought it salted and fried, therich man celebrated with fresh shark meat and eels. In its earliest dynastiesEgypt learned the art of fusing copper with tin to make bronze: first,bronze weapons--swords, helmets and shields; then bronze tools--wheels,rollers, levers, pulleys, windlasses, wedges, lathes, screws, drills thatbored the toughest diorite stone, saws that cut the massive slabs of thesarcophagi. 1, ed. The curriculum had three divisions--writing, music and gymnastics. The Egyptian priests imparted rudimentary instruction to the childrenof the well-to-do schools attached to the temples. London: N.p., 19 1.Murdoch, James. Cellars were rare, roofssparkled with red tiles, windows were fitted with shutters, oroccasionally, panes of glass. Children by a concubine were classedas illegitimate and could not inherit. Occasionallythere were tenements housing several families, but nearly every citizenowned an individual home. [5]Ibid., 3 2. The well-to-do ate meat, and pork was the favorite fleshfood. The Roman, like the Greek, readilycondoned the resort of men to prostitutes, and although male prostituteswere available, they were condemned by law, but tolerated by custom.Marriage, helped by anxious parents and matrimonial brokers, managed tofind at least temporary husbands for nearly every girl. As the population grew, the littleislands felt themselves crowded, and it became a matter of good repute notto mary before thirty, and not to have more children than two.Nevertheless every man was expected to marry and beget children. [19]Seneca the Elder, Controversiae, in Roman Life and Manners Underthe Roman Empire, vol I, ed. Friedlander. Ordinarily the boy and girl of the free classes entered at the age ofseven an elementary school, accompanied each way by a child-leader to guardhis safety and his morals, and taught by teachers who were usually Greekfreedmen or slaves. There were of course many simple machines, common to Italy,Egypt and the Greek world: screw presses, screw pumps, water wheels,animal-driven grain mills, spinning wheels, looms, the crane and pulley,and the revolving mold for pottery.[18] The moral life of the Roman youth was carefully guarded in the girl,leniently supervised in the young man. Egyptian engineering was superior to anything known to the Greeks orRomans. Blood ran warmalong the Nile, and girls were nubile at ten. Friedlander, (London: N.p., 1928), 241. Elaborate enactments prescribed the order and quantity of bites,and the posture of the body at each stage of the meal. Table manners, incontrast to the Greeks and Romans, became at least as important asreligion. This remained to the end theproperty of the wife, and reverted to her in case of a separation from herhusband--which discouraged divorce by the male. Rome (1 BC-3 AD) In Rome from 1 BC-3 AD, olive orchards were numerous, butvineyards were everywhere, beautifully terraced on the slopes. Meatwas a luxury; the poor had it only on feast days. Thefather was expected to provide for his daughter a marriage portion ofmoney, clothing, jewelry, and perhaps slaves. Where space and means allowed, the Japanese attachedtheir homes to their gardens, rather than their gardens to their homes likethe Greeks, Romans and Egyptians. Women were dedicated to the"Three Obediences"--to gather, husband and son. [9]Durant, Our Oriental Heritage (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1954),162. Fruits werefew; oranges and lemons were unknown. Heat was derived from dry woodor charcoal, burning in portable braziers. The subjectswere largely commercial, for the Egyptians were the first and greatestutilitarians; but the chief topic of pedagogic discourse was virtue, andthe chief problem, as ever, was discipline. Tea,flowers, poetry, and the dance became requisites of womanhood among thearistocracy of Japan. 3 (London: N.p., 1925), 171. Farmswere small, for even in feudal days one square mile had to support twothousand men.[12] The farmer's tools were of the simplest sort; hisclothing was poor and slight in the winter, and usually nothing at all inthe summer; his furniture was a rice-pot, a few bowls, and some chopsticks;his home was a hut so flimsy that half a week sufficed to build it.[13] This can be contrasted with Kaempfer's bright picture of Japanesehandicrafts as he saw them in the Kyoto of 1691: Kyoto is the great magazine of all Japanese manufactures and commodities, and the chief mercantile town in the Empire. . Sentimental attachment before marriage was uncommon. Familieswere large, and children swarmed in both hovels and palaces. Out of animals skins theymade clothing, quivers, shields and seats. Soils wereprotected by crop rotation, and fertilized by manure, alfalfa, clover, rye,or beans. The main rooms of the housewere grouped around the central atrium.[21] Plumbing was carried by the Romans to an excellence unmatched beforethe twentieth century. Stillothers wove fine linen. Possibly because of themastery of women over their own affairs, infanticide was rare, unlike inthe Greek civilization. There was no distinction of dining-room, living-room, or bedroom,with sliding panels or removable partitions used to separate or unite therooms, and windows were a luxury, openings being covered with split bambooblinds. The soil of Attica was rich in marble, iron, zinc,silver and lead. Other workmen developed thearts of enameling and varnishing, and applied chemistry to industry. Great canals were constructed, some from the Nile to the Red Sea;the caisson was used for digging, and obelisks weighing a thousand tonswere transported over great distances, drawn on greased beams by thousandsof slaves, and raised to the desired level on inclined approaches beginningfar away. The chief courses were oratory, geometry, astronomy, andphilosophy. [4]Ibid. 1. [18]Ibid., 343. The poorerclasses continued to live chiefly on grains, dairy products, vegetables,fruits and nuts. If hiswife proved barren he could divorce her; and if she gave him only daughtershe was admonished to adopt a son, lest his name and property perish; fordaughters could not inherit. They alkalizedthe soil with salts like carbonate of lime, and fertilized it withpotassium nitrate, ashes, and human waste. Water wasthe usual drink, but everyone had wine, and snow and ice were kept in theground to cool the wine in the hot months. In Roman Life and Manners Under the Roman Empire, vol. [2 ]Durant, Caesar and Christ, 351. Plow, spade, hoe, pick, pitchfork, scythe, rake. The aristocracy, unable to raisetheir mansions into the clouds, spread them spaciously over the earth,despite an imperial edict limiting the size of a dwelling to 24 yardssquare. A large part of the peninsula was given over to grazing. Caesar and Christ. [7]Ibid., 3 6. It wasdecreed that women might dispose of their property as they liked, althoughthe consent of both fathers was still required for legal marriage, andmarriage by purchase was acceptable, the bridegroom paid for the bride byweight. She kept the house, or superintendedits management; she cooked the meals, spun the wool, and made the clothingand bedding for the family. The wife absented herself three nights in each year, therebyretaining control of her property, excepting her dowry. In the building trades were carpenters, modelers, stonecutters,metalworkers, painters, veneerers, blacksmiths, swordmakers, shieldmakers,lampmakers, lyre tuners, millers, bakers, sausage men, fishmongers--everything necessary to an economic life busy and varied, but notmechanized. Women alsoattended, some after marriage. The Roman woman gained new rights as the man lost old ones. . Up tothis point the girls seem to have taken the same courses as the boys, butthey often sought additional instruction in music and dancing. New York: Simon and Schuster, 195 . L. Those who wished further instruction wentto Athens for philosophy, to Alexandria for medicine, or to Rhodes for thelast subtleties of rhetoric. Honey, sweetmeats, and cheese provided dessert. he gathers it in.[8]And the same Nile that irrigated the fields deposited upon them thousandsof fish in shallow pools. Rarer foods were served at banquets, including rare fish, rarebirds, rare fruit-- mullets, eels, snails, wings of ostriches, tongues offlamingoes, flesh of songbirds, livers of geese.[17] There was not in Roman life so geographical a division betweenagriculture and industry. Cornwas ground in mills turned by water or by beasts. However, even more sacred than sake, to thearistocracy, was tea. Slaves were still sufficiently available todiscourage the development of machinery; listless slave labor, with smallstake in the product, was not likely to make inventions. The husband oftenput his property in his wife's name to avoid suits for damages or thepenalties of bankruptcy. The mines at Laurium, near the southern tip of thepeninsula, provided ore, and silver refining produced the silver coins ofAthens which are ninety-eight per cent pure.[4] In addition, otherindustries included quarrying of marble and other stones, shaping pottery,dressing hides in great tanneries, wagonmaking, shipbuilding, saddle andharness making, shoe manufacturing. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966. Thetanning of leather had also reached the factory stage, but shoemakers wereusually individual craftsmen. The art of flower-arrangement grew step by step with "Teaism" in the fifteenth and sixteenthcenturies, and became in the seventeenth an independent devotion. Greek child-rearing included sending freeborn boys to professionalschoolmasters at the age of six, and continues till fourteen or sixteen, ortill a later age among the well to do. . Histories, Book II. TheRomans of the Empire took their bathing more religiously than their gods.Like the Japanese, they could bear public better than private smells, andno ancient people but the Egyptians rivaled them in cleanliness. [1 ]Ibid., 167. Family life was apparently aswell ordered, as wholesome in moral tone and influence, as in the highestcivilization of modern times. Adultery was still a minor offense in the man, in the woman itwas a major offense against the institutions of property and inheritance.But the husband no longer had the right to kill his wife taken in adultery. [16]Durant, Caesar and Christ (New York: Simon and Schuster, 195 ),338. Not only was awoman full mistress in the house, but all estates descended in the femaleline. Marriages by purchase could be ended by eitherparty at will, marriage by any other form could be ended only by thehusband. Without a dowry a girl hadlittle chance of marriage; therefore where the father could not give it toher the relatives combined to provide it. Cattle rearing was negligible asa source of food; horses were bred for racing, sheep for wool, goats formilk, asses, mules, cows, and oxen for transport, but chiefly pigs forfood; and bees were kept as providers of honey for a sugarless world. There were also someacres of flax and hemp, a little hunting, and much fishing. Greek mining was not for fuels,but for minerals. The power of the father was tyrannical,he could dismiss a son-in-law or a daughter-in-law from the patriarchalhousehold, while keeping the grandchildren with him; he could kill a childconvicted of unchastity or a serious crime; he could sell his children intoslavery or prostitution, and he could divorce his wife with a word. [15]Durant, Oriental Heritage, 857. Fruit and nut trees of every sortabounded--peach, apricot, cherry, grape, plum, filbert, walnut, olive andfig. In the city the houses were crowdedtogether in narrow streets; often they rose to two stories. History of Japan, vol. If hewas a simple commoner he was expected to be monogamous; but if he belongedto the higher classes he was entitled to keep concubines, and no notice wasto be taken of his occasional infidelities. Divorce was rare until the decadentdynasties. Thebetrothed couple seldom saw each other; there was no courtship, not even aword for it. Controversiae. Here thescholars studied more grammar, the Greek language, Latin and Greekliterature, music, astronomy, history, mythology, and philosophy. To the Japanese,fine cooking was an essential grace of civilization. . Crafts were handeddown from father to son or learned by apprentices. Usually the meal was begun with a hot drink ofthe sacred rice-wine, or sake. Thus, cereals, fish and meat were the chiefitems of the Egyptian diet. Japan (1-18 AD) The great bulk of the Japanese population during the years 1-18 ADwere composed of peasant proprietors, intensively-cultivating that one-eighth of Japan's mountainous soil which lends itself to tillage. When her husband died she did not inherit his property.She could, if properly veiled and attended, visit her relatives orintimates, and take part in the religious celebrations, includingattendance at the plays; but for the rest she was expected to stay at home,and not allow herself to be seen at a window. The entrance hallways usually led into an uncoveredcourt, which let in light and air, for nearly all the rooms opened intoit.[7] Egypt (4 -15 BC) The Egyptian civilization was described by Herodotus optimisticallyas he found them around 45 B.C. Although no degrees were granted in these schools, the studentmight stay as long, and take as many courses, as he liked. The Greeks used theolive for many uses: one pressing gives oil for eating, a second, oil foranointing, a third, oil for illumination; and the remainder was used asfuel.[3] Figs were the main source of health and energy in Greece, andalong with the other products of the soil--cereals, olive oil, grapes andwine--were the staples of diet in Attica. Girls were more subject to exposure than boys, forevery daughter had to be provided with a dowry, and at marriage she passedfrom the home and service of those who had reared her into the service ofthose who had not. The diners sat on one or two heels on mats, at a table raised buta few inches above the floor; or the food might be laid upon the mat,without any table at all. [14]Murdoch, History of Japan, vol. Plowing, harrowing, sowing, andplanting were done during the brief days of the fall, the grain harvestcame at the end of May, and the rainless summer was the season ofpreparation and rest.[2] Hillsides in Greece were terraced and watered to support generousharvests of olives and grapes, and asses were encouraged to make the vinesof grapes more fruitful by gnawing off the twigs. The Life of Greece. Even in courtshipthe woman usually took the initiative and love poems and letters weregenerally addressed by the lady to the man, and she formally proposedmarriage. The law forbade a man to remainsingle, but was not enforced; and many men remained bachelors. Greek lighting was provided by graceful lamps or torches burningrefined olive oil ore resin, or by candles. [21]Ibid., 365.----------------------- 23 Italyproduced fifty famous kinds of wine, and Rome alone drank 25, , gallons per year--two quarts per week for each man, woman and child, slaveor free.[16] The modes and tools of tillage were essentially as they hadbeen for centuries. The best and scarcest dyes, the most artful carvings, all sorts of musical instruments, pictures, japanned cabinets, all sorts of things wrought in gold and other metals, particularly in steel, as the best tempered blades and other arms, are made here in the utmost perfection, as are also the richest dress, and after the best fashion; all sorts of toys...In short, there is nothing that can be thought of but what may be found at Kyoto, and nothing, though ever so neatly wrought, can be imported from abroad but what some artist or other in this capital will undertake to imitate.[14]Most of the work was done in the home by families who passed down theiroccupation and their skill from father to son.
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