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NATURE OF GROUPS.
Term Paper ID:20731
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Essay Subject:
Primary groups, functions, power relations, structure, cohesion, religion, trust, behavioral norms.... More...
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6 Pages / 1350 Words
6 sources, 15 Citations,
APA Format
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Paper Abstract:
Primary groups, functions, power relations, structure, cohesion, religion, trust, behavioral norms.
Paper Introduction:
Primary groups are fundamental in forming the social nature and ideals of the individual (Cooley, 1962, p. 23). The result of primary association, psychologically, is a fusion of individualities in a common whole, so that an individual's life is aligned with the common life and purposes of the group.
It should not be assumed that the unity of the primary group is one of harmony and love. It is always a differentiated and can be a competitive unity. The individual may be ambitious, but the chief object of his ambition will be some desired place in the thought of the others, and he will feel allegiance to common goals of the group. For example, a boy may dispute with his fellows a place on the team, but will place above such disputes the group goal of winning the game.
The most important spheres of this intimate association and
Text of the Paper:
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It can also be the result of adefiance against conventional society. An essential aspect of increasing a group's cohesion is developingand maintaining a high level of trust among group members. Group norms vary both in the degree to which conformity is requiredand in the degree of conformity to a particular group norm by members indifferent situations. The result of primaryassociation, psychologically, is a fusion of individualities in a commonwhole, so that an individual's life is aligned with the common life andpurposes of the group. Generally, the more relevantthe individual's behavior to the accomplishment of the group's task andmaintenance of the group, the more pressured the individual is to conform. The other twoways that individuals influence organizational contexts are when powerfulindividuals (or groups) take actions that influence organizationalstructures, processes, and performance; and when the aggregation ofindividual thoughts, feelings, and behaviors--and the aggregate of groupattributes--can influence the organization as a whole (Mowday & Sutton,1993, p. ReferencesCooley, C.H. For example, in Japan deviantbehavior tends to elicit very strong negative social sanctions. Primary groups are fundamental in forming the social nature andideals of the individual (Cooley, 1962, p. Human nature is not something existing separately in theindividual, but a group-nature or primary phase of society, a simple andgeneral condition of the social mind. Norms can also be aprotection against the capricious or inconsistent use of influence by high-power members, but they also free the high-power members from constantlychecking the behavior of low-power members to make sure they areconforming. It is always a differentiated and can be acompetitive unity. Thecontrol need pertains to power relations in the group--who has influenceover the other group members. Social Forces, 71:2, 397-41 .Mowday, R.T., & Sutton, R.J. All human beings, because they live in a society, must establish asocial balance between themselves and their associates. Yetdespite this, since World War II, there has been an increase innonconventional religious affiliation. Norms carry weight because they embody some of the personalpower given up by group members. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.Miller, A.S. 376). Both the weaker and the stronger members tend to gain from havingmutually acceptable norms that introduce regularity and control into theirrelationship without making direct interpersonal application of powernecessary (Johnson & Johnson, 1982, p. Studies confirm that onlyindividuals with a weak attachment and commitment to conventional societyin Japan are likely to join these groups (Miller, 1992, pp. It should not be assumed that the unity of the primary group is oneof harmony and love. More formally organized groups, such as classroom,will have norms about absence, tardiness, accomplishment of assigned work,and appropriate times to speak. (1985). The way in which these positive actionsby members become implemented and stabilized in a group is for the actionsto be supported by norms that indicate what behaviors are expected of goodgroup members. 3 ). Membershipsin some groups, such as political parties, fraternities, or religiousgroups may be voluntary in one society, but may be induced by strongsocietal pressures in another. Some divergence from this is allowed since religioustolerance is also a social norm in the United States (Cuddihy, 1978). A group member will more openly express histhoughts, feelings, reactions, opinions, information, and ideas when thetrust level is high. People often see it as a blind, unreasoningadherence to the patterns of behavior established by others, or to thedemands of authority. There are three ways that members' cognitions, emotions, andbehaviors can shape processes and outcomes at the organizational level.First, autonomous individuals or groups may take actions that reflect theirown preferences but may claim that such actions reflect organizationalpolicies and procedures (Mowday & Sutton, 1993, p. It is something more than mereinstinct and something less than the more elaborate development of ideasand sentiments that make up institutions (Cooley, 1962, p. They are the prescribed modes of conductand belief that not only guide the behavior of group members, but helpgroup interaction by specifying the kinds of responses that are expectedand acceptable in particular situations. Some members may want a closegroup, others may want a cool or distant group atmosphere. Social organization, a study of the larger mind.New York: Schocken Books.Cuddihy, J.M. In any group, some norms specify thebehavior expected of all group members and others apply only to individualsin specific roles. The future of religions.Berkeley, California: University of California Press.----------------------- 8 Group cohesion is determined by the assessment of group members ofthe desirable and undesirable consequences of group membership. When the trust level is low, group members will beevasive, dishonest, and inconsiderate in their communications (Johnson &Johnson, 1982, pp. Predicting nonconventional religious affiliationin Tokyo: A control theory application. The most important spheres of this intimate association andcooperation are the family, the peer groups of children, and theneighborhood or community group of elders (Cooley, 1962, p. For example, aboy may dispute with his fellows a place on the team, but will place abovesuch disputes the group goal of winning the game. Organizational behavior: Linkingindividuals and groups to organizational contexts. 397-41 ). There are conditions under whichconformity to group norms may violate important individual values orprinciples, and other conditions under which it will support these valuesand beliefs. (1978). Ascohesiveness increases, so does the capacity of a group to keep itsmembers. 397). 372). Thus, within all groups, even those of theunconventional religious groups in Japan--which organized because itsmembers rebelled against the norms of conventional society--are certainnorms that its members are expected to follow or they will incur negativesanctions. (1992). All groups have norms, set eitherformally or informally. (1962). In the United States, conversely, conventional religious behaviorconsists of church attendance and an expressed belief in God (Stark &Bainbridge, 1985). Conformity to a group isfrequently viewed as a violation of one's principles in order to obtaingroup acceptance or to succeed. (1982). Regardless of how membership isobtained, every group has norms that its members are expected to follow ifthey are to maintain their membership. Group norms often serve as substitutes for influence among groupmembers. 388-389). Larger groups, obviously, have more complicated organizationalstructures. The affection need has to do withhow close the relations in the group are. Even among social psychologists there is a commonconception of conformity as agreement with the majority or for the sake ofagreement (Johnson & Johnson, 1982, p. These arepractically universal, belonging to all time periods and all stages ofdevelopment. 21 ). The morefavorable the outcomes members can expect from membership, the more theywill be attracted to the group (Johnson & Johnson, 1982, p. Joining together, group theoryand group skills (2nd ed.). However, not all behavior is covered by group norms. It is the sum of all the factorsinfluencing members to stay in the group. 4 ). In conclusion, forming groups is a part of human nature. This social naturegives rise to certain interpersonal needs. Some members will want more influence,others may not want to influence anyone. Conventional religiousbehavior consists of performing the appropriate rituals and exhibiting theappropriate beliefs given the specific occasion, and those who do notconform to at least this standard are negatively sanctioned (Miller, 1992,p. (1993). Primary group membership may be bestowed bybirth if the group is a family unit, or because of a particular geographiclocation, if the group is a community. To build and maintain a high level of cohesiveness within a group,members must value individuality, encourage trusting and trustworthybehavior, foster cooperativeness, and promote the expression of affectionand support among group members. The norms of a group are the group's common beliefs regardingappropriate behavior for members. 23). Three are basic: inclusion,control, and affection (Johnson & Johnson, 1982, p. In Japan, unlike the United States, religious life does not involveattending religious services or personal commitment to a single religiousdoctrine, but rather a variety of beliefs and behavior based on aspects ofShintoism, Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. The most frequently used term to describe member liking for andcommitment to a group is cohesiveness (Johnson & Johnson, 1982, p. Annual Review ofPsychology, 44, 195-229.Stark, R., & Bainbridge, W.S. Trust is anecessary condition for stable cooperation and effective communication.The higher the trust, the more stable the cooperation and the moreeffective the communication. The inclusionneed centers in membership--who is included and who is excluded. 24). Notmany groups care what their members do for recreation, or whether theyprefer one type of drink to another. 21 ). 372).Group cohesion, sometimes referred to as group solidarity, is the extent towhich the influences on members to remain in the group are greater than theinfluences on members to leave the group. Often group membership is the result of strong social pressures,rather than from purely voluntary reasons. 395). All groups, including primary groups, have some organizationalstructure. No offense: Civil religion and protestant taste.New York: Seabury Press.Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, F.P. In contemporary society, conformity has acquired anegative connotation. Individuals let themselves be influencedby norms in ways that they would never permit themselves to be influencedby others, for norms often take on the characteristics of moralobligations. Group norms deal primarily with thebehavior affecting the accomplishment of the group's task and the abilityof the group to maintain itself over time. The individual may be ambitious, but the chief objectof his ambition will be some desired place in the thought of the others,and he will feel allegiance to common goals of the group.
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