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YOUTH ATHLETICS & RISK MANAGEMENT.
Term Paper ID:22275
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Essay Subject:
Overviews of history & social benefits of quasi-public youth sports (e.g. Little League) & concepts of legal liability, insurance, risk exposure.... More...
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20 Pages / 4500 Words
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Paper Abstract:
Overviews of history & social benefits of quasi-public youth sports (e.g. Little League) & concepts of legal liability, insurance, risk exposure.
Paper Introduction:
RISK MANAGEMENT IN YOUTH ATHLETICS
Introduction
This research examines the application of the concepts of risk management in the administration of youth athletic programs. The term "youth athletic programs," as the term is defined for purposes of this research, does not refer to youth athletic activities conducted under the aegis of school boards or administrations public or private. Rather, for purposes of this research, the term "youth athletic programs" refers to programs administered by quasi public organizations such as Little League Baseball, Pop Warner Football, and the YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association).
The findings of this research are presented in three major discussions. The first discussion provides an overview of the
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Carefully designed studies have not been conducted, however, todetermine whether this effect is the result of participation in athletics,or whether the effects is a product of the selection process thatdetermines who may participate in athletics. Five major societal benefits are attributed by adherents to theconduct of youth sports programs. The most commonly used external financial resource in thiscontext is insurance (Dzingleski, 1987, pp. Kozlowski, J. 3-5). Coffin, T. A., and Matthews, D. Coyne, J. There are procedures that may be followed byorganizational management or administration to minimize risk. Arnott, R., and Stiglitz, J. (1988, January 24). Words to die by. Simply stated, without parents, there likelywould be no youth athletic programs in the contemporary period in theUnited States. References Achiron, M. Parents of participants provide most of the unpaid volunteer workersfor youth athletic programs, as well as comprising most of the spectatorsat the athletic contests. While several studies have found that teachers rate the leadershipskills of participants in youth athletic programs higher than those ofnonparticipants, these studies also suffer from a failure to apply pretest-posttest research designs. These activities are similar across all organizations, however, somevariance does exist in relation to organizational type. A more feasible goal is to attempt to reduce loss than it is toeliminate risk completely, although in practice some degree of loss willinevitably be experienced by most organizations, including thoseorganizations operating youth athletic programs. Most organizations rely oninsurance for a high proportion of their potential losses. The concept of self-insurance has grown more slowly in the public sector than in the privatesector. Thus, even the undeniablebenefits of physical exercise accrue to fewer and fewer children as theranking of the teams increase. Techniques for profit planning and control, 5thed. Provider, 13: pp. WilliamCahill, while representing the State of New Jersey in the United StatesHouse of Representatives, once rhapsodized about this claimed societalbenefit uttering the rhetorical question: "What better medium for improvingrace relations in the United States and developing better internationalrelationships through the world, than this great sport of baseball playedas it is under the ideal conditions prescribed by Little league baseball?"(Ralbovsky, 1974, pp. Product liability risks. These other institutionsprovide the essential community support and funding for the organizationsoperating youth athletic programs. (1971). Business Insurance, 28: pp. In Baughn, W. 5. (1978). Champaign,Illinois: Human Kinetics, pp. 197). D., and Brown. League Baseball for adolescents,and Pop Warner Football for preadolescents followed in the 194 s.Assessing the Benefits to Societyof Youth Athletic Programs Youth athletic programs have always been controversial (Fine, 1987,p. . Risk Management, 41: pp. Moral hazard is an economic concept that holds that entities shouldassume the greater proportion of any risk associated with their activities. (1994). Liability, for purposes of this research,is defined as the incurring of a monetary obligation. . The organizations that operate youth athletic programs tend to betied, however loosely, to other institutions such as schools, churches,governmental jurisdictions, and business firms. (1973, August 24). These economists arguethat such inefficiencies may be adequately corrected through (1) thetaxation of harmful factors and/or behaviors, and (2) the subsidization ofbeneficial factors and/or behaviors. Rather, forpurposes of this research, the term "youth athletic programs" refers toprograms administered by quasi-public organizations such as Little LeagueBaseball, Pop Warner Football, and the YMCA (Young Men's ChristianAssociation). Zolkos, R. Mechanical innovations also lead to increased risk of physical injuryfor participants in youth athletic programs (Martin, 1994, p. (Ed.). These elements are exposure identification(discussed at an earlier point in this research), risk evaluation(discussed at an earlier point in this research), risk control, riskfinance, and risk management administration. Five major societal benefits are attributed by adherents to theconduct of youth sports programs (Fine, 1987, p. That particular case was settled in thecriminal court system; however, fan injury is a source of potentialliability for organizations administering youth athletic programs. C. The fifth societal benefit claimed for participation in youthathletic programs is the development of leadership skills (Fine, 1987, p.2 1). Healthcare Financial Management,48: pp. Martin, D. Similarincidents have occurred in various parts of the country; some of equalseverity in terms of outcome, most of less outcome severity. (1992, October 5). ."(p. The so-called "Good Samaritan" laws prohibit liability claims against any personwho renders aid at the scene of an accident. 3. 3, 1 -11). A., and Summerville, R. This concept in most states in the United Statesis applied to children between the ages of seven and 18 years olddifferently from the way the concept is applied to adults. Emergency medicine and theunderage athlete. A. The emergence of children's sports. Swanke, Jr., J. All private and public sector organizations must address the aboveforms of risk. 32-34. Bedell, D. In the contemporary period, the concept ofcharitable immunity is in a state of confusion, as some courts throw outthe concept while other courts continue to embrace it. Benda, C. For purposes of thisreview, liability is considered in two contexts. 36-37. Foundations of risk measurement:Risk as a probable loss. 46-52). Such risks may occur if a third partyis injured, becomes ill, suffers pain or discomfort, or suffers a loss as aconsequence of some action under the control of the organization (Zolkos,1994, p. (1987). Once risk exposure, and the measurement (evaluation) of risk has beenperformed, the most important element of risk management must be performed--risk control (Goldberg and Kraus, pp. Goldberg, J., and Kraus, G. All organizations are shielded to some extent from liability claimsassociated with the provision of medical aid to injured players. Risk control refers to activities intended to accomplish the"reduction or elimination of risk or loss, within proper economicrestraints, through careful procedures and practices" (Kloman, 1994, p.374). Newsweek:p. Employee and dependents health care risks. An organization administering a youthathletic program may find that the development and implementation ofpolicies designed to reduce the probability of liability claim ispreferable to high insurance costs, self-insurance, or futile attempts togain a legal shield against such claims (Maloy, 1988, pp. Harris, C. S., and Simon. 1-24. The third societal benefit claimed for youth athletic programs isthat such programs teach athletic skills and provide physical exercise(Fine, 1987, p. Marley, S. 2 1-223). (1994, June). In the contemporary period, the concept of charitableimmunity is in a state of confusion, as some courts throw out the conceptwhile other courts continue to embrace it. Risk managementadministration involves the "development of administrative techniques tocarry out the risk management process most effectively, using skillsavailable inside and outside" of the organization (Kloman, 1994, p. (1994, June 3 ). Such risks may occur if an employeeof the organization is injured, becomes ill, suffers pain or discomfort, orsuffers, while engaging in activities associated with his or her employmentwith the organization (Zolkos, 1994, p. Other economists argue that, in an economy characterized by moralhazard and multiple commodities, competitive equilibrium is not constrained-efficient (Arnott and Stiglitz, 1986, pp. Law and liability inathletics, physical education, and recreation. Opposing suchprofessional opinion, however, is the perception that the benefitsassociated with youth athletic programs are akin to gifts from God. 82. Colliers: pp. III-1, 1 . Is your organizationready to share financial risk with HMOs? These factors are anidentification of the areas in which losses may occur, a quantification ofthe maximum extent of any possible loss, and the assigning of probabilitiesto the occurrence of maximum losses in the risk areas (Fishburn, 1984, pp.396-4 6). 198). Riskcontrol policies and measures, therefore, should be designed to minimizerisk. 46-52. Roberts, R. Maloy, B. S. 373-386). Joy and Sadness in Children's Sports. Fishburn, P. III-1). 2 1-223. Institutional organizations:Formal structures as myth and ceremony. (1994). Increasingly, however, organizations with rulesprohibiting the mixing of boys and girls on the same team or in the sameleague are being found liable for discriminatory actions. Law and sport. (1975, July 21). Little League in 1939 was the first of the privately organizationsformed to administer youth athletic programs (Meyer and Rowan, 1977, pp.34 -363). Meyer, J. The objective of the riskcontrol function is "the elimination . 198). 2. 78). Dzingleski, L. 4. (1984, April). Gerrard, D. Risk management. 14-18. The problem with research on this issue is that the studies thatfind positive psychological benefits for those children who participate inyouth athletic programs in relation to the experiences of young persons whodo not participate in such programs is that the studies are notcharacterized by pretest-posttest designs. Even major league baseball players disagree on the outcomesassociated with preadolescent programs. Within the context of the moral hazardconcept, as an example, a manufacturing corporation may well decide thatthe most financially prudent strategy is to assure that a high level ofsafety is built into their products, as opposed to relying on high-costproduct liability insurance. Analyzing cost-of-risk. Regardless of the type of risk involved, self-insurance is morelikely to be used as a form of risk funding by large organizations than itis by smaller organizations (Geisel, 1988, pp. Points toknow about liability insurance. (1977). Otherorganizations administering youth athletic programs receive no suchbenefits. The cost of risk isdefined as the sum of net insurance premiums, risk control and lossprevention expenses, administrative costs associated with risk management,and unreimbursed loss costs. H., and C. Feller, B., with Lebovitz, H. In Kraus, G. E. The realities of the situation, however, arethat residential segregation by racial and ethnic groups throughout theUnited States preclude large-scale interactions between young persons ofdifferent racial ethnic groups through participation in youth athleticprograms. American Journal of Sociology 83:pp. The third element is a clear delineation of risk managementresponsibilities within the organization. 34 -363. People Weekly: pp. 49-84). 39).Charitable immunity implies that a charitable organization cannot be heldliable for either its own negligence or the negligent acts of others actingin behalf of the organization. The basic principles of managingrisk. Parents of participants provide most of the unpaid volunteer workersfor youth athletic programs, as well as comprising most of the spectatorsat the athletic contests (fine, 1987, pp. Volunteering parents are aware of this situation, and many,perhaps most, are not reluctant to apply the threat of discontinuedparticipation in attempts to secure more playing time for their ownchildren. . The benchmarking boomerang.Institutional Investor, 28: p. D. Estimates of the cost of risk will determine for most risk managersthe extent to which they will attempt to shift an organization's risk toanother party (Blinn and Brown, 1984, pp. Business Insurance, 22: pp. Sideline Samaritans: The pros and consof volunteering. At the lower echelons of theseorganizations, the adults involved in the operations of the programs tendto be almost exclusively unpaid volunteers. One of themost common means of retaining only a portion of the risk is to purchaseinsurance with deductible clauses. (1994, May 2). Thus, the possibility is strongthat the children selected to participate in youth athletic programs aremore secure than the average child prior to beginning participation inyouth athletic programs. 2 1-223). H. (1994, May). Blinn, J. 132-136. 18-21). The third societal benefit claimed for youthathletic programs is that such programs teach athletic skills and providephysical exercise. Business Insurance, 28: p. While the incident was said to be highly unusual, similarincidents had occur in the past. Reforms in tort law torequire losing plaintiffs to pay the court costs of the winners are viewedas providing positive benefits for organizations administering youthathletic programs. This situation increases the risk ofphysical injury to participants in youth athletic programs. 3). F. Few people will argue that the provision of physicalexercise is not a societal benefit; however, many would argue that littlebenefit to society accrues from the teaching of athletic skills. In most instances, it is anunrealistic expectation to attempt to eliminate risk completely. (1984, July). 195). Physicians and Sportsmedicine, 19: pp. 'Perfection' possible in financing risk.Business Insurance, 28: p. Little Leagues not only foster friendships, develop coordination and good health habits in boys, but they break down social barriers to make a more closely knit community . The fourth claimed societal benefit of youth athletic programs isthat they provide psychological benefits for the participants (Fine, 1987,p. 82). The administration of a risk management program requires continuousdirection, generally by an organizational officer specifically assignedthis task" (Kloman, 1994, p. Chicago: University of ChicagoPress. 3, 1 -11. . The concept of contributory negligence is another that poses problemsfor the organization administering youth athletic programs (Baley andMatthews, 1989, p. (1956, August 3). The fourth element is the existence of open communicationsbetween the risk management unit and all other units within theorganizational structure. 11). Kloman, H. What would seem like a basic training ground for baseball often turns out to be a program of negative thoughts that only retards young players (Roberts, 1975, p. Generally,children between the ages of seven and 18 years old may be heldcontributorily liable only to the extent that they fail to exercise "thatdegree of care ordinarily exercised by a child of similar age under thesame or similar circumstances" (Baley and Matthews, 1989, p. 2 -2 2). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. There are, however, a variety of management approaches thatmay be employed in addressing each type of risk to which an organizationmay be exposed.Application of Risk Management inOrganizations AdministeringYouth Athletic Programs There are three principal factors at work in the measurement of risk(Goldberg and Kraus, 1994, pp. 1 -11. (1974). Martin, D. The doctrine enables mentally able minors to giveconsent for themselves if the proposed treatment can provide the desiredresults in emergency situations. In each of the areas of interest, the role of insurance in riskmanagement is considered as appropriate.Concepts of Risk Management In one sense, risk is considered to be a measure of uncertainty(Harris, 1994, p. No one pays any attention to how much money the boy's father has, or his social standing . This charter makes Little league a quasi-federal organization, whoserevenues are exempt from taxation, requires the organization to shape itsmission to the needs of the United States government, and provides theorganization some protection against liability law suits. 48.----------------------- 1 The fourth claimed societal benefit of youth athleticprograms is that they provide psychological benefits for the participants.The fifth societal benefit claimed for participation in youth athleticprograms is the development of leadership skills. EIL exposure must be dealt withpromptly. Risk Management, 31: pp. The adults who formed theearliest of the youth athletic programs perceived baseball as being centralto American culture (p. L. Management Science, 3 : pp. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. 48-55). 8-11). The practice ofself-insurance, however, is growing steadily. (1994). 384). (1986, February). Volunteering parents are awareof this situation, and many, perhaps most, are not reluctant to apply thethreat of discontinued participation in attempts to secure more playingtime for their own children. 374). A 17 year old fan attending a Little League Baseball game inCalifornia was killed in a physical dispute that was initiated by racialtaunts (Achiron, 1993, pp. B. Law dealing with the concept of charitable immunity hasbeen developed primarily through case law. 47). Risk financerefers to the "provision of sufficient funds to meet loss situations, ifthey occur, by use of both internal and external financial resources . Schut, J. 161). Thus, again, the strong possibility exists thatthe apparent benefits attributed to participation in youth athleticprograms are simply manifestations of the selection process applied by suchorganizations.Structure and Operation ofYouth Athletic Programs Youth athletic programs are organizations created and operatedexclusively by adults (Fine, 1987, p. Risk of thistype may be associated with investments in common stock or bonds, or it mayrefer to the risk involved in one capital investment project as opposed toan alternative project. McCormick, B. The application of a pretest-posttest design tosuch research, therefore, easily could find that participation in youthathletic programs inflicted psychological harm on some or all of the youngpersons involved. 6). . 4). W., and Rowan, B. (1989). History of Youth Athletics in the United StatesThe history of youth athletics in the United States is considered in fourcontexts. Organizations administering youth athletic programs can incurliability in multiple contexts. In considering whether all, a portion,or none of a particular risk should be retained, an organization mustdetermine the extent to which the risk can be financed from internalsources, the extent to which effective risk control measures can beimplemented, and the cost advantages or disadvantages between conventionalinsurance and self-insurance. New York: Herder and Herder. Pearce, M. Parks & Recreation 29: pp. Some data dosuggest that athletes generally are less likely to be delinquents than non-athletes. There are five principal components to the process of risk management(Kloman, 1994, pp. Similarly, an individual may determine thatthe preferred course of action is to live a healthy and low-risk life styleand to save a greater proportion of current income, as opposed topurchasing high-cost life insurance. Zolkos, R. . 78-8 . The cost of insurance forces many entities to assume greaterproportions of risks associated with their activities simply because theycannot afford to do otherwise. Ralbovsky, M. 18-21. 4). (1987, March). 32-33). Manyprofessional recreation directors and educators believe that such programsare detrimental to the social development of preadolescents because of thecompetitive emphasis in such programs and the quasi-militaristic characterof the organizations administering the programs. B3. (1987, March). Los Angeles Times: pp. The findings of this research are presented in three majordiscussions. 457). P. 2 -2 2. Risk financing involves providing the funds required to coverpotential losses (Bedell, 1987, pp. 48-55. This disapproval led to the development of privately organizedyouth athletic programs across the United States. Thus, there is a cost associated with riskboth if the organization incurring the risk makes any attempt to minimizethe risk, or if the organization actually suffers a loss with respect tothe risk. Baley, J. By 191 , 11 , boys were participating in thisprogram. 132-136). Jr. The first element is the existence of a written risk managementpolicy. The term"youth athletic programs," as the term was defined for purposes of thisresearch, did not refer to youth athletic activities conducted under theaegis of school boards or administrations--public or private. The following are contradictoryquotations from two Baseball Hall of Fame pitchers, Robin Roberts and BobFeller. The first claim is that participation inyouth athletic programs reduces the rate of juvenile delinquency. Changing 'risk' concepts show need forcollective action. The assumption underlying this argument is that entities will not exercisethe necessary or desirable levels of prudence if they know that they arenot bearing a significant risk. 3-5. C. Drivel of a similar sort motivated latterday adults to form youth athletic programs emphasizing football andbasketball.Development of YouthAthletic Programs The first formal youth athletic program established in the UnitedStates was the Public Schools Athletic League in New York City in 19 3(Martens, 1978, p. Financial markets: Theaccumulation and allocation of wealth, 5th ed. New York: WydenBooks. Martens, R. 161. (1994, August 29). While these types of risks are quite real and mustbe addressed by organizational managements and administrations, they remainoutside of the responsibility area for risk management officers in mostprivate sector and public sector organizations (Schut, 1994, p. Youth athletic programs have always been controversial. Risk Management: Concepts and Application The concepts of risk management, and the application of thoseconcepts by organizations administering youth athletic programs areexamined. Banning wheelchair from sidelinesviolates ADA. F. Liability, for purposes of this research,was defined as the incurring of a monetary obligation. Geisel, J. B. This is the basic fault with Little League . The second major claim of societal benefit made for youth athleticprograms is that they increase tolerance (Fine, 1987, p. 83-84). The term"youth athletic programs," as the term is defined for purposes of thisresearch, does not refer to youth athletic activities conducted under theaegis of school boards or administrations--public or private. E. P. Fine, G. 4. The Bankers' Handbook, 5th ed. (1991, November). 83-84. Law dealing with the concept of charitable immunity has beendeveloped primarily through case law (Baley and Matthews, 1989, p. When someportion of a risk is shifted to another party, the shifting party insuresagainst the possibility of loss. Thebenefits to society of the conduct of youth athletic programs are assessed,and then the structure and operation of organizations administering suchprograms are examined.Purpose Underlying the Developmentof Youth Athletic Programs The oldest of the youth athletic programs in the United States areassociated with baseball (Gine, 1987, p. The cost of insurance forces many entities to assume greaterproportions of risks associated with their activities simply because theycannot afford to do otherwise. (Ed.), HealthCare Risk Management: Organization and Claims Administration, 3rd ed.Owings Mills, Maryland: Rynd Communications, pp. For acting their age, they are made to feel incompetent. A 12-year old boy in Brooklyn, New York was killed at a Little league facilityby a baseball thrown by an automatic pitching machine during a practicesession. An organization administering a youthathletic program may find that the development and implementation ofpolicies designed to reduce the probability of liability claim ispreferable to high insurance costs, self-insurance, or futile attempts togain a legal shield against such claims. Risk in the broad context stated above, however, is not the type ofrisk to which risk management procedures per se are applied (Pearce, 1994,pp. (1994, August). Organizations administering youth athletic programs may findthat the American With Disabilities Act has created a Catch 22 situationfor them. The first discussion provides an overview of the history ofyouth athletics in the United States. Where else is there a more practical training for democracy? The legal liability of theorganizations administering youth athletic program is reviewed in thesecond discussion. 36-37). 374). Journal of Public Economics, 29: pp. Thesecond major claim of societal benefit made for youth athletic programs isthat they increase tolerance. With the significant rise in insurance costs, however, anincreasing number of public sector organizations are opting for self-insurance. Converting disaster recovery into acorporate asset. . Survey finds most employers self-fund health benefits. Legal Liability of Organizations Administering Youth Athletic Programs in the United States Organizations administering youth athletic programs can incurliability in multiple contexts. Robinson, R. Summary and Conclusion This research examined the application of the concepts of riskmanagement in the administration of youth athletic programs. Insuring against the possibility of lossis not a cost-free exercise. The concept of risk, as risk is perceived within the context of thisresearch, is a risk involving (1) the possibility of an adverse outcome toan event, (2) the possibility of a real and recognizable loss, as opposedto a failure to maximize opportunities, and (3) the possibility of a realand recognizable loss wherein some portion of the risk of such loss may beable to be shifted to another party (Swanke, 1987, pp. Rather, forpurposes of this research, the term "youth athletic programs" referred toprograms administered by quasi-public organizations such as Little LeagueBaseball, Pop Warner Football, and the YMCA. This concept is valid, and certainly risk in whatever operation maybe conducted must be minimized by organizational management oradministration. Workers' compensation risks. C. The fifth element is the availability of outside assistance andcounsel for the risk management unit. First, the purpose underlying the development of formal youthathletic programs in this country is discussed, and then the development ofthe major programs of this type in the United States is reviewed. With the Boys. In the context of organizationalevents, however, this definition of risk remains quite broad. Homewood, Illinois: DowJones-Irwin, pp. Each of these claimstend to be highly controversial. Little League: It's more than justbaseball for kids. 2. 32-34). The first claim isthat participation in youth athletic programs reduces the rate of juveniledelinquency. (1994, September). General liability risks. InMartens, R. 41-48. Don't knock LittleLeagues. (1987, March). First, liability relatedto physical injuries suffered by the young persons participating in theathletic programs is discussed, and then all other areas whereinorganizations may incur liability. Where other economists use moralhazard as an argument for the assumption of greater risk levels byentities, opponents use moral hazard as an argument for greatergovernmental intervention in an economy. 1-24). Astatement by a youth athletic program administration that an injured playeracted in a reckless manner, thus, may not be a defense against a liabilityclaim by the player or her or his family.Other Sources of Liability Recently, an adult volunteer coach brought suit against Little LeagueBaseball for violating his rights under the Americans With Disabilities Act(Koslowski, 1994, pp. Such risks may occur if someone isinjured, becomes ill, suffers pain or discomfort, or suffers a loss as aconsequence of contact or use of a product (good or service including anathletic contest which places organizations administering youth athleticprograms at risk for such liability) produced or sold by the organization(Marley, 1994,.pp. Lords of the locker room. (1994, August). B3). RISK MANAGEMENT IN YOUTH ATHLETICS Introduction This research examines the application of the concepts of riskmanagement in the administration of youth athletic programs. "The picture of the fathershoving a glove and a bat into the crib of his first son is an Americancliche simply because it symbolizes something typical about American hopesand fears" (Coffin, 1971, p. (1994). C. Provider, 13: pp. Such risks may occurin conjunction with liability assumed by the organization for the costs ofhealth care (Coyne and Simon, 1994, pp. 396-4 6. Within each of these classifications ofliability, relevant organizational policies, and law--both statute and case--are addressed as appropriate.Liability Associated With PhysicalInjury to Participating Youth Little League, unlike other organizations providing youth athleticprograms, operates under a federal charter issued in 1964 (Fine, 1987, p.5). Within the context of mostprivate sector and public sector organizations incurring liability, thetypes of risk encompassed within the definition of risk used in thiscurrent research (definition stated above) are as follows: 1. All organizations are shielded to some extent from liability claimsassociated with the provision of medical aid to injured players (Benda,1991, pp. 41-48). New York Times, p. 39). Developing and implementinga comprehensive risk prevention program. There is a lot of pressure on these young people to do something that is unnatural for their age--so there will always be hollering and tremendous disappointment for most of the players. Orchestrating effective programs allows riskexecs to toot their own horns. I., and Wrightsman, D. 11. American Medical News 35: pp. Charitable immunity impliesthat a charitable organization cannot be held liable for either its ownnegligence or the negligent acts of others acting in behalf of theorganization. Indianapolis, Indiana:Benchmark Press. A legal innovation called the "matureminor doctrine" will help organizations administering youth athleticprograms to defend themselves against liability claims involving thetreatment of program participants experiencing physical injury (martin,1994, pp. In this broad context, everything that is done byand within an organization--private sector or public sector-- involvesrisk. C. The organizations that operate youth athletic programs tend to betied, however loosely, to other institutions such as schools, churches,governmental jurisdictions, and business firms (Fine, 1987, p. The federal courtsfound, however, that the rights of the complaining volunteer coach tookprecedence over the safety of the children participating in the game. The major elements of aneffective risk control program are protection and security policies andmeasures, personnel safety policies and measures, property conservationpolicies and measures, and emergency planning. 54-55). Journal of Athletic Training 29: pp. 8-11. Suits related to playing time and playing position have nohistory of success. J. Whatwill be interesting is the outcome of a suit against Little League Baseballin the name of a player injured by running into a wheelchair at a baselinecoaching box. Strike out Little League. Tort reform proponents want losersto pay legal costs. The principal elements of an effectiverisk management administration are as follows: 1. 3). Provider, 13: pp. (Eds.). As one progresses upward inthe organizational structures of these programs; however, unpaid adultvolunteers gradually give way to the paid employee and administrator. Boy's death from pitch by machinecalled rare. . Edgar Hoover, on an occasion when he was not wearing awoman's dress, claimed that Little league was the greatest deterrent tocrime in American history (Ralbovsky, 1973, p. Organizations administering youth athletic programs have also beensued over such issues as playing time, playing position, and participationpolicies. Risk may be grouped according to type. 5-11. . New York: McGraw-Hill BookCo. 15). Little League Baseball contended that thepresence of the wheelchair at a baseline coaching position created a riskof physical injury to the participants in the game. The concept of risk is narrowed somewhat by the definitionholding that risk is the "possibility of an adverse outcome to an event"(Robinson and Wrightsman, 1994, p. Thus, these adults were motivated to developyouth baseball programs to imbue young persons in "crucial aspects of theAmerican spirit and American values" (p. Many professional recreation directors and educators believe thatsuch programs are detrimental to the social development of preadolescentsbecause of the competitive emphasis in such programs and the quasi-militaristic character of the organizations administering the programs (p.195). 3). 379). Athletics and recreation directors in public schools andgovernmental administrations, however, generally opposed preadolescentsports. Ralbovsky, M. The old ballgame: Baseball in folklore andfiction. E.Walker. Theseother institutions provide the essential community support and funding forthe organizations operating youth athletic programs. 3. Overuse injury and growing bones: Theyoung athlete at risk. Nevertheless, supporters ofyouth athletic programs chose to think the former. (1993, March). The second element is the existence of a formal risk managementunit within the organizational structure. 48). BrownPublishing. (1988). P. or reduction of not only lossbut risk itself" (kloman, 1994, p. Opposing such professional opinion, however, is the perception thatthe benefits associated with youth athletic programs are akin to gifts fromGod. M. (Feller, 1956, p. Simply stated, withoutparents, there likely would be no youth athletic programs in thecontemporary period in the United States. (1994). Self-insurancemay be applied to the totality of a risk to which an organization isexposed, or, alternatively to some proportion of that risk. British Journal of Sports Medicine 27: pp. 17). (1993, June 7). Aschildren age, however, youth athletic programs tend to apply more demandingselection criteria for continued participation. The increasing numbers of children participating in formal youthathletic programs, together with changes in youth sport, means than moreand more children are being exposed to high intensity training at earlierages (Gerrard, 1993, pp. 8). Moral hazard andoptimal commodity taxation. The concepts of risk management, together with theapplication of these concepts by organizations administering youth athleticprograms, is examined in the third discussion. The organization of P.O.N.Y. P. 14-18). 373-386. The so-called "Good Samaritan" laws prohibit liabilityclaims against any person who renders aid at the scene of an accident.Reforms in tort law, such as that being sought through the Republicanparty's "Contract With America," to require losing plaintiffs to pay thecourt costs of the winners are viewed as providing positive benefits fororganizations administering youth athletic programs (McCormick, 1992, pp.1 -11).
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