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AQUACULTURE.
Term Paper ID:22522
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Essay Subject:
Analyzes fish farm industry, focusing on shrimp. Technology, environmental management, law & policy, economic theory related to property rights, global issues. Table.... More...
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20 Pages / 4500 Words
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Paper Abstract:
Analyzes fish farm industry, focusing on shrimp. Technology, environmental management, law & policy, economic theory related to property rights, global issues. Table.
Paper Introduction:
SHRIMP AQUACULTURE
Introduction
This research examines the shrimp aquaculture industry. The functioning of the industry is reviewed within the contexts of (1) economics and resource management, (2) biological and technological aspects of shrimp aquaculture, and (3) environmental management, law, and policy. Throughout this examination, special attention, where appropriate and feasible, is devoted to the shrimp aquaculture industries in both Ecuador and Taiwan (Republic of China).
Economics and Resource Management
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN) estimated that aquaculture accounted for 12 percent of global fish product
Text of the Paper:
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Consumers' surplus is definedas the excess amount a consumer is willing to pay for a good, as opposed todoing without it, over the amount actually paid for the good. The resultant waste water contains a number of digestive enzymeswhich may be reclaimed from the waste water using ferric chloride andconcentrated by ultra-filtration employing a molecular weight cut-off of1 , Daltons. [33]Emerson, 33. Thefunctioning of the industry is reviewed within the contexts of (1)economics and resource management, (2) biological and technological aspectsof shrimp aquaculture, and (3) environmental management, law, and policy.Throughout this examination, special attention, where appropriate andfeasible, is devoted to the shrimp aquaculture industries in both Ecuadorand Taiwan (Republic of China). "Hitting the High Seas." OECD Observer, August-September 1995, 33-36.Gerrietts, M., Cooke, L., and Wood, M. Such reservoirs also may be used to raise fish andshrimp. Sonnichsen, "European Seafood Exhibition Booms, ControversyLooms, News Glooms," Quick Frozen Foods International 37 (July 1995): 1 4. Someeconomists contend, however, that if government legislation forced allmembers of the society to sacrifice to protect the environment, peoplewould eventually be willing to make such a sacrifice because they would seepositive outcomes, and they would see that all members of the society, notjust themselves, made the sacrifice. Phulpoto, and G. In super-intensive systems, these functions may accomplished by using expensivemechanical and biological filters and liquid oxygen, or if the integratedsuper-intensive ponds is integrated with an agricultural reservoir system,the circulation of the water through the reservoir accomplishes both theinput of oxygen and the extraction of ammonia. The result hasbeen a failure to agree on management strategies and institutionalmechanisms for management and resource allocation. Market failures, however, do occur, and common propertyresources, such as fisheries, are well-known examples of such failures.Unlimited access to a common property fishery negates any incentive toconserve the resource, and "a classic case of over fishing is the usual"outcome.[6] The aquaculture industry in Taiwan is in a no-growth pattern in the199 s.[7] The industry has suffered some growing pains, many of which havebeen corrected. The measures that will allow fisheriesto be exploited in a manner that can sustain long-term use will requirecourageous government intervention: a moratorium will deprive potentialparticipants from entering business. San Francisco: Westview Press, 1991.Branstetter, H. The opportunity costs of resources mustbe determined, because, as both income and consumption are expected to riseover time, it is natural to value present consumption more highly than thesame absolute amount of consumption benefit at some future time. [29]Pompe and Rockwood, 16. Conversely, those individuals and organizations interestedin preserving the environment and the quality of life in an area tend toreject the concept of bidirectionality with respect to externalities. The modern approach to economic externalities is based upon twoassumptions. "Wither Shrimp: High Prices and Low Supplies Are Taking Their Toll on Shrimp Sales in Some Markets." Supermarket News 44 (1 August 1994): 19-2 .MacIsaac, M. Both current and developing technology makefeasible shrimp aquaculture and mariculture generally at land-sitedaquaculture facilities. This behavior is said to be rational forthe individual because additional benefits for the individual exceedadditional private costs. R. [38]Emerson, 35. If the actual price paid for a goodis assumed to be its marginal price, then the sum of the differencesbetween that price and the prices than one would be willing to pay forearlier units in the consumption chain (assuming a limitation on supplywhich would cause prices for earlier consumption to be higher) and themarginal price constitutes the consumer surplus. An individual would have noincentive to protect resources unilaterally if any benefits fromconservation were to be shared by all members of the commons while the lostrevenues were suffered only by those who conserve. [1 ]Sonnichsen, 1 4. G., Phulpoto, L. [2 ]Cohen, 8. Gerrietts, L. G. Pompe and C. "Taiwan's Frozen Food Industry: Gearing Up For Future Prospects." Quick Frozen Foods International 35 (July 1993): S2-S3.----------------------- [1]M. "Shrimp, No Longer A Luxury, Should Be Promoted As A Commodity." Frozen Food Age 41 (January 1993): 22-23.Cohen, D. The lack of property rights to a commons area leads to social welfarelosses resulting in what is termed the "tragedy of the commons."[29] Thistragedy occurs because users feel compelled to make increasing use of aresource until it is depleted. Obviously, Coase'sapproach is attractive to those economists and politicians who opposegovernment intervention in any form in the economy. [35]Emerson, 34. [2]Nazri, 38. A successful market system allocatesresources in an impartial manner, auctioning them off to their highestvalued uses. A non-use value within the context of CVM is the value toan individual of knowing a natural resource is available for use in thefuture over an above the expected use value of the resource. The concept ofdiminishing marginal utility, and, thus, the size of the consumers'surplus, rests upon an assumption that, up to a point, demand for a goodwill increase, as the price of the good decreases. Ecuador, too,has had problems with disease, causing a loss of 15% of its exports to theUS; and now a 4.5% duty imposed by the EU is aggravating that country'sproblems."[1 ] China's (People's Republic) farm-raised shrimp production,which represents about 1 percent of total global production, hasplummeted.[11] There were also reductions crops from other producingcountries, including Indonesia, the Philippines, Ecuador, and Taiwan. A low feedconversion ratio ( .8 feed input to 1. A., and Maitlo, G. Cohen, "Aquaculture + Agriculture = Profits," AgribusinessWorldwide 16 (January-February 1994): 6-9. Basedupon these assumptions, solutions to the problems thus created have tendedto be one of the following three types: (1) require the entity creating theexternality to pay damage to those injured by its existence; (2) tax theentity creating the externality by an amount equivalent to the damagecaused; or (3) prohibit those activities in areas where harmfulexternalities would be created. Cooke, and M. UNCLOS similarly calls for management practices consistentwith the principles of sustainable development and responsible fishing."Yet these concepts have to be clearly defined in order to insure aconsistent and meaningful application of the rules."[36] A number of other international, multilateral and bilateralagreements, conventions and the like also spell out management objectivesand principles for specific fisheries and regions.[37] The InternationalCommission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT) is developing aprogram of international cooperation in research and conservation to studythe unique problems derived from the highly migratory nature of tuna.Similarly, the North-west Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) is aregional body that provides conservation and control measures. [31]L. A study found that the presence of transactions costs rendered theCoase Theorem virtually useless as a real world tool. M. [34]Emerson, 33. [18]Cohen, 7. [4]"Tragedy," 22. Coase would agree that suchan externality existed. R. One study found that a key fault in the Coase Theoremrevolves around the requirement for zero transaction costs. The FAO now believesthat the limit to sustainable landings of wild fish was exceeded decadesearlier. Brown, "Shrimp Production Expanded During 1994 to RecordHigh," Feedstuffs 67 (3 January 1995): 1 -12. H. L., and Leal, D. . Thus, the future of aquaculture appears to be land-based. Nevertheless, over fishing indeveloped-country waters is worse than ever. Most of these countries establish quotas based on themaximum catch that would leave enough fish to spawn next year, and resourcemanagers attempt to limit fishing by licensing boats, restricting fishingtimes, and regulating fishing gear. Wood, "Soy! Shahidi, "Role of Chemistry and Biotechnology in Value-AddedUtilization of Shellfish Processing Discards," Canadian Chemical News 47(September 1995): 25-29. Within the context of this suggestion, environmental damage isviewed as an externality. In 199 and 1991, the two most recent years for which FAOdata are available, the world catch began to shrink. Fish and shrimp can be denselystocked in these ponds, which are called super-intensive ponds. Privatization, the process of defining and enforcing ownershiprights for individual or corporate control, may be a possible alternativeto help manage some resources better. The central goal isthe sustainability of fish stocks. Tung-Kuo, "Taiwan's Frozen Food Industry: Gearing Up For FutureProspects," Quick Frozen Foods International 35 (July 1993): S3. First, the assumption is that externalitiesare harmful, and second, it is assumed that they are unidirectional. In order to use an agricultural reservoir for aquaculture, relativelyminor adaptations are required.[18] One approach is to form a square inthe reservoir with poles, from which a long net is strung to form a sort ofbag. MacIsaac, "Old MacDonald Had A Scallop," Canadian Business 68(October 1995: 124. [13]Branstetter, 55. [22]F. [6]Pompe and Rockwood, 14. "Setback for Shrimpers in Battle of Mangroves." Financial Times, 19 June 1995, 21."The Cutting Edge of Farm Technology." Agribusiness Worldwide 15 (September- October 1993): 26-32.Emerson, W. The technologyinvolved is unique to this industry and may accurately be termed "high-tech."[13] The decline in volume of the harvest of white shrimp in the PRCreduced exports significantly and created uncertainties for future suppliesin both the Japanese and American markets. "Now it may be Thailand's turn . As aresult, catch quotas and trip limits, meant to prevent over fishing, werelifted in 1982. UNCLOS does not provide the mechanisms to achievethese goals. Thus, for most politicians andpublic administrators, short-term expediency may be expected to prevailover long-term imperatives. For these reasons many countries haveintroduced shrimp culture production where brackish water is available. The assumption of a bi-directional character of externalities ledCoase to declare that problems involving externalities must be looked at intotal and not only in the margin.[28] Coase's research led him to developa theorem holding that under specified conditions production andconsumption decisions will be both (1) economically efficient, and (2)unaffected by legal liability rules regarding the costs of externalities.The conditions required for the theorem to be valid are (1) perfectinformation, (2) perfect competition, (3) zero transactions costs, (4) acostless court system, (5) profit maximizing producers, and utilitymaximizing consumers, and (6) no wealth effects. Thus, it is assumed that an individual will bewilling to pay more for the first unit of consumption than for a unitconsumed at some point further along. [12]H. The economicimpact can already be seen in reduced supplies, higher prices, loss ofemployment opportunities and international tension. Integration is achieved by first using the water for aquacultureand then, after the fish or shrimp have been harvested, using the water toirrigate crops. Because most commercially attractive fish live near the shore,international agreement has brought many fisheries under the control of thenearest country. Additionally, antibiotic residues were present inshrimp bound for Japan. "A Cooperative Management Solution to A Fishery Commons." Marine Fisheries Review 55 (Fall 1993): 14-18.Shahidi, F. "Dead in the Water." Wall Street Journal, 16 July 1991, 1.Klepacki, L. "Aquaculture + Agriculture = Profits." Agribusiness Worldwide 16 (January-February 1994): 6-9.Collit, R. The contingency valuation management (CVM) approach to theestablishment of levels of liability derived as a market approach from thework of Coase. Leal, Free Market Environmentalism (SanFrancisco: Westview Press, 1991), 5. Economics and Resource Management The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN)estimated that aquaculture accounted for 12 percent of global fishproduction in 1991, and that the proportion will rise to 25 percent by2 .[1] The FAO estimated that demand for aquatic foods will reach 11 million tons annually by 2 , thus, creating a 2 million ton supplyshortage. Memon, L. Shrimp aquaculture, however, remains highly risky.[9] First Taiwan'sindustry was virtually wiped out by a blight, then China was hit, then theeast coast of India. Fish grow and feed throughout the watercolumn, while shrimp remain on the bottom feeding on the fishes waste. Sea fishing grew rapidly in the decades after the Second World War.[3] Mechanized fleets increased the catch in traditional grounds, and thenexpanded into distant waters. A technology has been developed that allows the simultaneousproduction of fish (tilapia) and shrimp in the same pond.[21] The systemworks because each species occupies a distinct ecological niche withoutinterfering with the other. Acceptanceof this approach is required, according to its proponents, if the currentgeneration is to be persuaded to invest the resources required to protectthe environmental health of the future. "An Analysis of Production, Prices, Exports and Packaging of the Fish Industry in Pakistan." Economic Review, 25 (April 1994): 43-46.Sonnichsen, T. Fishers, thus, are living off capital, consumingthe resource that should produce their catch. M. In the short-term, the loss of jobs,loss of industries, and high program costs are factors that will oftenoutweigh the potential long-term adverse effects of groundwatercontamination in the minds of some people. [32]W. . Free Market Environmentalism. Developers and growth advocates tend to pursue the Coase approach toexternalities. SHRIMP AQUACULTURE Introduction This research examines the shrimp aquaculture industry. E. The drugs were used to prevent a reoccurrence ofthe virus that decimated Taiwan's shrimp farming industry in 1987.Industry officials took quick action to monitor farms when Japaneseofficials threatened to ban all shrimp imports. For the past decade growth in shrimp production has been almosttotally the result of aquaculture, which now accounts for up to 3 percentof the total annual global harvest.[12] About 8 percent of the worldproduction of farm-raised shrimp takes place in Asia by means of extensive,semi-intensive, and intensive methods of culturing. Thesuccess of this technique requires the use of genetically improved fry, arigorous program of fish and shrimp reproduction, and excellent pondmanagement. Almost all the 2 fisheries monitored by the FAO are fullyexploited.[4] One in three fisheries either is depleted or is heavily over-exploited. Branstetter, "International Shrimp Marketing Trends andForecast For 1994 and Well Beyond," Quick Frozen Foods International 35(January 1994): 55-57. The additional cost to society, however, isgreater than the additional benefit received by society, as the eventualresult is destruction of the commons. Emerson, "Hitting the High Seas," OECD Observer, August-September 1995, 33. It is an economic truism that a scarcity ofresources necessitates choice. This goal isfeasible only if aquaculture production can be doubled in the next 15years, and if substantial improvements can be achieved in the conservationand management of fishing stocks. [3]"The Tragedy of the Oceans," Economist 33 (19 March 1994): 21-23. Ammonia is oxidized first intonitrite, then into harmless nitrate. Ingrassia, "Dead in the Water," Wall Street Journal, 16 July1991, 1. M. [3 ]Pompe and Rockwood, 16. Unicellular green algaewhich live in the upper water layer of the reservoir assimilate ammoniaand, in the process of photosynthesis, release oxygen; thus, nitrifyingbacteria at the bottom of the reservoir. Collit, "Setback for Shrimpers in Battle of Mangroves,"Financial Times, 19 June 1995, 21. This concept holds that, at some point, consumption ofadditional incremental quantities of a good will yield successively smallerincreases in utility. "European Seafood Exhibition Booms, Controversy Looms, News Glooms." Quick Frozen Foods International 37 (July 1995): 1 4-1 7."The Tragedy of the Oceans." Economist 33 (19 March 1994): 21-23.Tung-Kuo, L. FAO projectionsindicate that, if current volumes of fish consumption per capita are to bemaintained up to the year 2 1 , it will be necessary to increase currentlandings of food fish by 26 percent to 91 million tons. tons of shrimp per hectare and 1 to 15 tons of tilapia per hectare simultaneously. As foreign fishing declined, however, theregulatory agency was pressured to allow increased domestic harvests. Theassumption upon which such market approaches is based is that sufficientlyhigh charges levied against polluters will result in a situation whereinthe polluters will not be able to pass the increased costs along to theircustomers, and thus will cease the polluting activities. A consumers'surplus can exist only within the context of the concept of diminishingmarginal utility. [16]R. In the realworld, it is difficult to find a situation in which transaction costs arezero. Aquaculture, whichprovides property rights, has mitigated the commons tragedy in some aquaticspecies. Klepacki, "Wither Shrimp: High Prices and Low Supplies AreTaking Their Toll on Shrimp Sales in Some Markets," Supermarket News 44 (1August 1994): 19-2 . Nazri, "Prospects of Fish Farming in Developing Countries,"Economic Review 22 (April 1991): 37-39. L. First, the assumption is that externalities are harmful, andsecond, it is assumed that they are unidirectional. Fish and shrimp are harvested by raising the bag.The bottom of the net is connected to a fish pump and the fish and shrimpare sucked through the net into an aerated transport tank on theembankment. It's No Ordinary Bean." Agricultural Research 41 (November 1993): 1 -16.Ingrassia, L. E. Whereas the conventional approach to dealing with economicexternalities all but demands governmental participation in reachingsolutions, Coase's approach indicates that such participation is not onlynot required, it could even be inefficient. [7]L. [9]T. [25]J. Moore, "The Hi-Tech Hatchery: Pollution Cuts Output FromTaiwan's Pioneer Farmers," Far Eastern Economic Review 145 (5 October1995): 1 7-1 8. Many of the conditions required for the theorem to be valid areunrealistic. In 1989, thegrowth stopped. The typical approach to economic externalitiesis based upon two assumptions. . Aquaculture is a "notoriously risky and finicky business, subject tothe vagaries of disease, human error and acts of God."[8] Aquaculturefarmed seafood production rose to 15.9 million tons between 1986 and 1993.At the same time, the wild catch was stagnant during the period, enablingthe aquaculture share of the aquatic foods market to increase to over 2 percent. [27]Emerson, 35. [37]Emerson, 34. Coase looked ateconomic externalities from a different perspective.[27] Integral to thisapproach to externalities was the perception of a bi-directional characterfor externalities. "Prospects of Fish Farming in Developing Countries." Economic Review 22 (April 1991): 37-39.Pompe, J., and Rockwood, C. R. Since 1983, however, there has been a sharp dropin aquatic harvest, due to severe over fishing.[31] Under the UN Convention of the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), states areobligated to take such measures "as may be necessary for the conservationof the living resources of the high seas."[32] These measures are supposedto ensure that harvested species are maintained at or restored to volumeswhich can produce the "maximum sustainable yield, as qualified by relevantenvironmental and economic factors."[33] The measures necessary to achievethese goals, however, are not clearly defined. When countries have banned unregulated foreign fleets fromtheir exclusive zones, domestic fleets have expanded to take their place.Fish will become scarcer and more costly over the coming years. [19]M. Most aquaculture raised shrimp is frozen as raw, whole blocks.[22] Atthe processing plants, the frozen blocks are thawed by circulating sprayingwater. M. Property rights to fishing sites onrivers and streams in Scotland and England have been in operation since the196 s. [23]"Tragedy," 23. Another study foundfault with the implication in the Coase Theorem that both parties to anexternalities dispute are liable to one another. [5]J. The dispute exists primarily with respect to the measurement ofthe consumer's surplus. As an example, in the case of stocksstraddling two national jurisdictions and highly migratory stocks, UNCLOSstates that coastal and fishing states should seek to reach agreement onthe management of stocks either directly or through regional or sub-regional organizations. The experience was somewhat areplay of the unprecedented decline which occurred in the production ofblack tiger shrimp in Taiwan in the late 198 s. After the catch had trebled in only 2 years, fishing developed more slowly in the 197 s and 198 s. The conventional approach toexternalities would posit that the mill created a harmful externality bycausing it to be either unpleasant, unhealthy, or both for individuals tocontinue to live in the vicinity of the mill. [26]T. In tropical and subtropical countries, watershortages during the dry season, and the concurrent inability to irrigate,limit agricultural production. B. [15]Nazri, 37. With improved technology and increased demand for fishpushing up prices, certain fisheries, for a short time, experienced anincrease in catch levels. Common property resource with open access, such as a fishery, will beused to excess when faced with sufficient demand.[5] This behavior willlead to an excessive amount of effort on the part of the fishery, resultingin a depletion of the stock. In the United Kingdom, landowners maintain desirable fishing spotsto rent to sporting groups. The basic concept of a consumers' surplus is generally accepted as avalid one. "Soy! A study in the mid-197 s confirmed the relativeaccuracy of the Marshallian approach to the measurement of utility wherethe good in question forms a small part of the total budget. By contrast,a use value may be defined in terms of either current or future use.Current use value encompasses both consumptive and nonconsumptive use,while future use refers to an future intended use of the natural resource.The use of surveys in conjunction with an application of the CVM approachgenerates the data required for the evaluative process. Shaikh, A. The solution is construction of waterreservoirs in which water collects during the rainy season and is then usedduring the dry season. The integrated production can improve a pond's profitability,producing an annual harvest of 2.5 to 3. H. Rather, he contended thatliability should be placed on the party who at least cost can preclude theoccurrence of a costly interaction. It's No Ordinary Bean,"Agricultural Research 41 (November 1993): 1 -16. Supporters of this approach contendthat it is justified because environmental resources, once consumed ordestroyed, will no longer be available to future generations. [17]D. In many waters, too few fish have been left in the sea tomaintain spawning stocks. Too often, politicians havebeen reluctant to conserve stocks (for fear of reducing fisher's income),and resource managers have been unwilling to follow the advice of marinebiologists. High priceswill curb consumption and stimulate aquaculture. Problems in both caseswere rooted in environmental, ecological, and economic causes. BibliographyAnderson, T. B., Memon, A. According to the Anderson and Leal, government regulation directed atenvironmental protection is doomed to failure for two reasons.[26] First,such regulation evolves from a political agenda, as opposed to beingdeveloped on the basis of sound economic realities. He would extend the concept, however, and statethat to either prevent the mill from operating or to penalize the mill foroperating would impose a reverse externality on both the mill operators andthose individuals and groups in society who wanted more paper pulp. This practice has proved to be especially beneficial inareas such as Ecuador, where water is limited year-round or during certainseasons. Aquaticgrowth in super-intensive ponds requires the input of oxygen and theelimination of toxic ammonia excreted by the fish and shrimp. "Old MacDonald Had A Scallop." Canadian Business 68 (October 1995: 123-126.Moore, J. The demand for shrimp is increasing throughout the world.[2] Althoughdemand is increasing, the ocean shrimp catch is decreasing and the cost ofcatches is increasing due to high cost of fuel, gear, and labour foroperating the trawlers in sea. [8]M. As an example, assume that a paper pulp mill is spewingnoxious fumes into a residential area. For this latter type situation, itwas found that the use of compensated demand curves provides an effectivemeasurement. Environmental Management, Law, and Policy Intensive fish farming tends to damage coastlines.[23] The futuregrowth of shrimp aquaculture in Ecuador may be restricted overenvironmental concerns associated with the loss of Mangroves.[24]Similarly, pollution problems have resulted in production reductions inTaiwan's shrimp aquaculture.[25] A valid question to raise involves the most appropriate approach tothe protection of an environmentally sensitive resource. The Penaeid shrimp industry in Ecuador has been highly successfulusing this approach. The aquatic yield from such a reservoir can reach 1 tons perhectare per cycle, without causing any loss of water. Actual andprojected shrimp production is presented in the table which may be foundbelow on this page.TableShrimp Production: Actual (1994) and Projected (1999)[14]________________________________________________________________Country Production (Millions of Pounds) 1994 1999Ecuador 1 6 126Thailand 99 115China (PRC) 7 82India 41 47Indonesia 25 3 Mexico 22 25Bangladesh 17 2 Philippines 5 6Other 121 137Total 5 6 588 Biological and Technological Aspects of Shrimp Aquaculture Most fish farmers in Asia maintain small farms of less than onehectare each, and the yield is about 4.5 tons of fish per hectare, andprotein production from aquaculture is five-times better than anyagricultural crop.[15] Shrimp is a source of high quality protein(approximately 18-2 percent by weight of fresh shrimp).[16] Agricultural operations using irrigation can integrate freshwateraquaculture with their operations, creating a new source of income whilerequiring only a relatively small additional investment.[17] Theseirrigation systems can be designed to permit both fish and shrimp to beraised on these facilities. [24]R. The general tenor of this argument isthat society should reward those of its members who would despoil theenvironment to the extent required to assure that such individuals andinstitutions will not act prejudicially to the environment. The most typicalapproach to the protection of the environment in the United States isthrough the application of non-market activities by government. [28]Emerson, 35. "International Shrimp Marketing Trends and Forecast For 1994 and Well Beyond." Quick Frozen Foods International 35 (January 1994): 55-57.Brown, R. This lack of definitionreflects the tension between the desire to conserve and preserve the marineenvironment and the desire to use and exploit the resource. [14]R. In the political context, the implications must be considered on botha short-term and a long-term basis. [21]"The Cutting Edge of Farm Technology," Agribusiness Worldwide 15(September-October 1993): 29. Anderson and D. This type ofmarket approach to the protection of the purity of the environment is beingapplied in the 199 s to curtail the pollution of Lake Michigan byagricultural operations. Very high yields are attainable fromsuper-intensive systems. [11]L. Applying this reasoning to the protection of the environment has ledto market approaches to solving the problem that exact charges againstpolluting activities, but that do not prohibit such activities. Shrimpfrequently are fed diets containing soy meal in place of some protein thatwould otherwise have come from fishmeal or other marine animal sources.[19] Fish or shrimp also can be raised in specially built concrete orplastic-lined earthen ponds.[2 ] To keep the ponds free from harmfulalgae, water is circulated continuously between the ponds and a supplyreservoir using regular irrigation pumps. Rockwood "A Cooperative Management Solution to AFishery Commons," Marine Fisheries Review 55 (Fall 1993): 14-18. fish or shrimp output). R. To solve the logistical problem of getting shrimp toprocessors, about 5 plants have been constructed near farm sites duringthe past three years. "The Hi-Tech Hatchery: Pollution Cuts Output From Taiwan's Pioneer Farmers." Far Eastern Economic Review 145 (5 October 1995): 1 7-1 8.Nazri, M. The bag may then be lowered in the water and raised from the waterwith an electric motor. One of the principal reasons why environmental protection legislationis difficult to enact and implement is that to do so causes presentgenerations to sacrifice for the benefit (primarily) of future generations. Second, governmentalregulation for environmental protection is based upon a concept of penalty,as opposed to an incentive basis. Well intentioned policies often are negated by special-interest andrent-seeking behaviors.[3 ] In the United States, the 1976 MagnusonFishery Conservation and Management Act extended the nation's oceansjurisdiction of from three to 2 miles, with the goal of controlling overfishing by foreign fleets. But such measures are necessary iffuture generations are to find cod, halibut, or tuna on their dinner tablesin the years to come."[38] Conclusion Aquaculture generally undoubtedly will assumed increasing importancein the production of food on a global scale over the next century.Environmental problems associated with aquaculture are associated primarilywith ocean-sited fish farms. Severaleconomists, however, suggest that market approaches would be moreeffective. At optimal water temperatures, yields can reach4 tons per hectare. Although Thaishrimp farms were long admired for their environmental management,something seems to have gone wrong now, and there are indications that anoutbreak of disease could turn into a full-scale epidemic. [36]Emerson, 34. Maitlo, "AnAnalysis of Production, Prices, Exports and Packaging of the Fish Industryin Pakistan," Economic Review, 25 (April 1994): 43-46. A. "In short, for the oceans to remain asource of nutrition, it is becoming more and more pressing that they bemanaged in an active, responsible manner."[34] Several international organizations, have begun to address theseissues; however, current efforts in this context will do no more thanprovide a framework for responsible management.[35] Specific measuresnecessary for effective management and conservation will not be developedas a part of current efforts. "Shrimp Production Expanded During 1994 to Record High." Feedstuffs 67 (3 January 1995): 1 -12.Chauvin, B. "Role of Chemistry and Biotechnology in Value-Added Utilization of Shellfish Processing Discards." Canadian Chemical News 47 (September 1995): 25-29.Shaikh, R. Where thegood forms a large part of the total budget, however, the Marshallianapproach is not sufficiently accurate. Many politicians and economists contend that most people are unwilling tomake such sacrifices voluntarily. In economic theory, consumer behavior is addressed within the conceptsof consumer preference and consumer surplus. The truth is "stark: if the current intensity of exploitation ofmarine resources is not properly regulated, the resource will simply bedepleted to the point where it will virtually disappear.
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