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BABOONS.
Term Paper ID:23266
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Essay Subject:
Protection, classification, diet, grouping behavior, mating, social bonding, defensive strategy, child-rearing.... More...
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12 Pages / 2700 Words
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Paper Abstract:
Protection, classification, diet, grouping behavior, mating, social bonding, defensive strategy, child-rearing.
Paper Introduction:
Baboons
The baboons that have undergone remarkable evolutionary change. Overall, the species demonstrate considerable diversity. For example, the baboons' different social systems permit them to occupy various ecological niches. In addition, the animals are inherently flexible. Thus, they readily adjust to changing environmental influences.
Depending on the choice of classification system, there are currently between 150 and 180 living primate species. Of these, 50-60 primate species, or one-third of the total, occur on the African continent. While these primates are widely distributed, many species occupy well-defined ecological niches covering small geographic areas. These small communities need to be protected. Such conservation could take the form of education programs,
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Group sizealone may have a deterrent effect. Volume 1. However, asexpanding human populations continually encroach upon natural habitats,more and more animal species will eventually need to be protected (Oates,1986, pp. (1989, March). Defensive strategies maynot even hinge on the presence within a group of large males. The two maingroupings include the leaf-eating colobines and the cercopithecine monkeys. The Linnaeus system of taxonomicclassification represented a refinement over earlier attempts. In fact, groupmajorities generally consist of females and their young (Sanoff, 1988, p.65). The baboons belong to the subfamily, Cercopithecinae. Of these, 5 -6 primatespecies, or one-third of the total, occur on the African continent. This particular primate exploits an opensavannah grassland grazing niche (Dunbar, 1988, pp. This interaction could provide anopportunity for the animals to exchange information. While group foraging efficiency is more significant amonglarge carnivores, larger numbers of individuals may allow for themonitoring of food production over a wider area. Natural History, 48-49.Anderson, C. Yet somehow, survival advantages have caused thesebehaviors to emerge and endure. Primates may also live together because the need help raising theiroffspring. Such assistance could include caring for infants, protectinginfants, and even, perhaps, adopting infants in the event of a mother'sdeath. Some males may even switch groups several times.Finally, males do much less grooming than females; when they do groom, itis usually only with a potential sexual partner. This habitat includes two widely varyingsettings. 113). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 78, 355- 36 .Dunbar, R. The more open-country species mayrange over considerable areas looking for food. Suchassociations typically include many adult males. Within the baboon superfamily Cercopithecoidea, the familyCercopithecidae comprises various Old World monkeys. Although localcompliance might be achieved to some degree through education, it is betterfor people to have some sort of self-interest in conservation. 21, 26). In addition, the Primate cheekteeth alsoinclude the following: "upper molar ectoflexus shallow, trigonid notdisparately taller than talonid, and talonid at least as long and broad astrigonid; lower molars bear cristids obliquae" (Schwartz, 1986, p. (1992, February). 243). Essentially, they may be viewed asdynamic relationship clusters. Like the Primate order, the taxa of suborder, Anthropoidea, is alsocharacterized by its teeth. In addition, Catarrhini alsohas "complete postorbital closure" and "a relatively flattened bulla with along external auditory meatus" (Schwartz, 1986, pp. New York, NY: Springer- Verlag.Sanoff, A. In contrast,the most "consistently agreed-upon criteria" for establishing Primatemonophyly involves cheekteeth--and especially molar--morphology. In contrast, youngmales do not necessarily stay with the same group. The distinction between these two suborderswas originally based on the idea of "lower" and "higher" primates. In addition, socialrelationships are also affected by group size. Obviously, there must be otherinfluences which cause the formation of large groups. Of course, for any conservation effort to work, it must beagreeable to the people living in the particular area. Systematics, evolution, and anatomy (pp. Baboon females bear young throughout their lives. Whilethese primates are widely distributed, many species occupy well-definedecological niches covering small geographic areas. Costs could have included the fact that largeherds had to travel farther to find sufficient food. For example, Kummer observed that theshortage of safe hamadryas baboon sleeping sites forces the animals to formvery large sleeping troops on the few cliffs that are available (Dunbar,1988, p. Unfortunately though, the evolution of large baboongroups cannot be entirely accounted for by the need to delegate child-rearing responsibilities. One of these, a cliff face, protects the baboons from mostpredators. Certainly, the various observed baboon behavioraldifferences cannot be related simply to sexual dimorphism, diet, orpopulation density. At present, the primates are classified according to the systemdevised by Karl von Linné (17 7-1778). Moreover, female hamadryas andgelada baboons generally only mate with one male. 2). Under suchconditions, the chacma baboons deviate from the savannah pattern and engagein behaviors similar to the hamadryas/gelada mating system (Anderson, 1989,p. During the summer, this savannah baboonforms large groupings and engages in the promiscuous savannah matingbehavior pattern. If communicationenhanced their ability to find food, it would definitely have a positiveaffect on the baboons survival. Such circumstances could explain whyfemale baboons tend to be so loyal to the group, whereas male loyalties aresubject to shift. African primate conservation: General needs and specific priorities. 3 3-3 4). Obviously, associating into groups willhave both positive and negative effects. Groups of as few as two or three adults couldadequately serve this particular function. News & World Report, 1 4, 65.Schwartz, J. These animals mate polygynously. In K. For example, appropriate emphasis shouldbe placed on such things as sustained-yield forest management. 1 6) observed the reaction ofhamadryas baboons to potential danger. Within a fairly briefinterval of time, males and females will generally mate with everyindividual of the opposite sex that's available. However, baboon socialsystems tend to be inherently flexible. U.S. R. 48-49). Male geladas must interact with all of the females in their haremin order to ensure loyalty. Erwin (eds.), Comparative primate biology. Those males that manageto survive to maturity leave their birth group and immigrate to a newtroop. In addition to the various grouping behaviors, baboons also possessdifferent mating systems. In D. 25-26). 1 6). Moreover, Ransom(as cited in Dunbar, 1988, p. Swindler & J. In addition, geladas possess polygynous sexualsystems. While adoption among baboons is--for the most part--an uncommonoccurrence, it has been reported by both Hamilton et al. Baboon social relationships may be both diverse and quite complex.For example, different animals will interact frequently, while others mayassociate rarely. 1-41). 18). (1991, February 16). Subsequent increases in predation risk might then haveinduced the animals to gather into larger and larger multimale groups. (1988, August). Thus, during every estruscycle, each savannah baboon female mates with more than one male. Such costsgenerally result from the competition between different group members forlimited resources. Leading ladies: In baboon society, elderly females often call the shots. Baboon generasuch as Papio and Theropithecus are grouped together within the tribe,Papionini. P. Thus, gelada and hamadryas social systemscan be classified as both "one-male-grouped" or "multimale-grouped." The various baboon grouping patterns may be partially associated withterritorial requirements. 355). Baboons The baboons that have undergone remarkable evolutionary change.Overall, the species demonstrate considerable diversity. Third, Kummeret al. Such a phenomenon would displace another group. The adult malein each one-male-group mates only with the two or three females in hisharem; these "pair bonded" males will not respond to the "solicitations ofnonharem females" (Anderson, 1989, p. Depending on the choice of classification system, there are currentlybetween 15 and 18 living primate species. As forest habitatsdwindled during the late Miocene, these primates adopted different ways ofdealing with the adversity. and Smuts (ascited in Dunbar, 1 88, p. For baboons, the positive factorsmust outweigh the negative ones. For example, the baboon infraorder Catarrhiniis distinguished from the primitive condition by the fact that it only hastwo premolars in each quadrant of the jaw. Among the gelada baboons,for instance, increased size acts to fragment the single-male reproductiveunits. Thirdly, it is also noteworthy that the chacma baboon can displayboth types of mating patterns. The more familiar primate characteristics such as "grasping handsand feet" or a "postorbital bar" are additionally found in other mammals.Therefore, these features can only be considered apomorphies. Whilecertain morphological features characteristic of Anthropoidea do exist, thedistinction between the two suborders is, for the most part, arbitrary. Therefore,ideally reserves should be incorporated into comprehensive plans for bothresource development and management. In addition, the animals are inherently flexible. Males can only achieve such a level ofinteraction, however, in small groupings: once a reproductive unit's sizeexceeds five adults, the male no longer has the time to groom his entireharem effectively. I. When the African forestsbegan to recede during the Pliocene, the Papio baboons probably invaded thenew habitats. Maternal time budgets of gelada baboons. When gelada are within the safety of the cliffface, they tend to live in one-male reproductive groupings. These societies may be thought to consist of "multi-layered setsof coalitions." The various interrelationships differ with respect tointensity, character, and function. New York, NY: Alan R. 358). While the Ethiopian baboons--who were subjectto predation--foraged in large bands, the Saudi Arabian baboons--who werenot subject to predation--slept and foraged in one-male groups. The Linneaus system of classification was among the first to employbinomial nomenclature and delineate the various species. Liss, Inc.----------------------- 14 112). Thesebroad grasslands contain few trees, and thus render the gelada baboonsvulnerable to predation. Most baboon groups consist of between 3 and 8 individuals. Perhaps common baboons started out as small one-male groups ofarboreal frugivores. In addition, costs could also derive from individualmembers having to coordinate their activities with others in order toremain together (Dunbar, 1988, p. More baboons also equateswith greater social stress. Of course, living in groups also has its disadvantages. In fact, complexbaboon societies probably result from the interaction of multiple factors. Conversely, rather than gather together, Guinea baboons disperse forfeeding. The baboon's survival and reproductive successclearly emphasize the importance to primates of complex social systems. Then, towards the end of the Miocene, these animalsmay have adopted a more terrestrial lifestyle. Preferential associationsapparently have little influence over savannah baboon mating behaviors(Anderson, 1989, p. For example, gelada, Guinea, andhamadryas baboons may live in one-male units that regularly associate witheach other. The study reported that on 29 of 34threatening occasions, the baboons' inter-individual distances decreased(i.e., the animals closed ranks). 24). Foraging independently, these subtroops are able to conserveenergy by not having to travel as far to feed themselves. H. There is abundant evidence that animalsrespond to predation risk by forming larger, more compact groups. 113). Benirschke (ed.), Primates: The road to self-sustaining populations (pp. 3 3-3 4). The cercopithecine monkeys include the Asian macaques, and the Africanguenons and baboons. Duringforaging, however, these larger societies break into smaller units thatoperate independently. (1988). Groups havethe ability to monopolize foraging areas for their own exclusive use.Obviously, animals that can control an abundant food supply have atremendous survival advantage. For example, although thehamadryas baboon forages in small sub-units, the primates assemble togethereach evening at a sleeping cliff. Of course, one problem with baboon species is the question of whysuch social variability even exists. Inreality, both suborder together represent a sequence of animals progressingtowards greater morphological and behavioral complexity (Schwartz, 1986, p.5). This is important because anunderstanding of primate social organization might shed some light on thehuman condition. The spread of exclusive mating in a chacma baboon population. (1986). Such "reproductive suppression," however, mighthave been offset by different social interactions (Dunbar, 1988, p. Only when thebaboons ascend up to the plateau for grazing do they coalesce into largeherds (Dunbar, 1988, pp. The baboon evolutionary progression might suggest that the geladasare the most advanced. ThePrimate cheekteeth are generally "bunodont with upper molar sidesrelatively filled out and M1 paraconid more buccally than anteriorlyemplaced" (Schwartz, 1986, p. When aggregated together the one-male units may form bands ofas many as 6 to 1 animals. New Scientist, 129, 24.Oates, F. These various evolutionary forces have given rise to significantsocial diversity among baboon species. Primate systematics and a classification of the order. ReferencesAltmann, J. Within suchmanaged areas, highly protected sanctuaries could be created. New York, NY: Comstock Publishing Associates.Dunbar, R. Only the species, Theropithecus gelada, isdistinct with regard to diet. Instead, they will only concentrate on a fewloyal females, leaving the rest to cultivate other relationships (Dunbar,1988, p. Research has demonstrated several instanceswhere large-bodied primates have driven off predators. Moreover, greater effort could be directed towards theelimination of poaching activities. Even when male and females do pair, therelationships are rarely, if ever, monogamous. In general, the baboons are omnivorous; moreover, they tend todisplay a definite preference for fruit. 1 6) described watching a male baboon protectan orphaned infant from predatory chimpanzees. 1 6) assessed hamadryas baboons inEthiopia and Saudi Arabia. 297). Such conservation could take the form of educationprograms, national conservation strategies, and more stringent huntingcontrols. Well-fed baboon babies become best reproducers. Finally, during grazing, the gelada females overcome reproductivesuppression costs by forming coalitions. M. This would haveinvolved both time and energy costs, as well as the possibility that theanimals could wander into marginal habitats. 25-26). Certainly it is unrealistic to tryand protect large areas of Africa. Itdelineates the order, Primates, primarily on the basis of the animals'teeth. At present, the African primatesgenerally do not appear to be seriously threatened; fortunately numerousnational parks and other reserved areas already exist. For example, these animals have, for the most part,become completely terrestrial: even when trees are available, the geladababoon rarely climbs them. Such factors generallyresult in males being less socially integrated into baboon society. Despite the one-male groupings of certain baboons, however, primatesocieties are not dominated by male aggression. For those early baboons, increased group size certainly also hadvarious negative effects. For example, thebaboons' different social systems permit them to occupy various ecologicalniches. These measures, however, require abetter understanding of primate needs. Rather more emphasis tendsto be placed on cooperation and intelligence than on force. However, among thehamadryas and geladas, males lacking harems are unable to mate with adultfemales. These small communitiesneed to be protected. These alliances buffer relatedfemale baboons from harassment (Dunbar & Dunbar, 1988, p. Male status peaks in young adulthood, and then subsequently declines at afairly rapid rate. As the baboons range over their territorialareas, their groups adapt according to both time and geography (Dunbar,1988, p. A second group-associated survival advantage may involve animals'ability to defend year-round food supplies. From the apes, a message of hope. These animals characteristically possess "lower crowned teethwith reduced relief" (Schwartz, 1986, p. Such bonds arefurther strengthened by grooming. 5-6). Relationships may also be antagonistic, exploitative,mutualistic, or neutral. Aggression between animals could have haddirect reproductive costs. Furthermore, even though baboons do notdefend their territories, group size could still proffer a survivaladvantage on them. For the most part, the animals live in multimale groups. In addition, Anderson (1984) found that,in predator free habitats, baboon groups tend to disperse. Whereas females inherit their mother's social rank and retain itthroughout their adult lives, males must compete for and defend their rank. Animal Behavior, 36, 97 -98 .Lewin, R. There they must form new relationships with strange male and femalebaboons. Inaddition, within a given month, individual males will typically mate withmore than one female. For example, "savannah" baboon subspecies suchas Papio cynocephalus anubis (the olive baboon), Papio cynocephaluscynocephalus (the yellow baboon), and Papio cynocephalus ursinus (thechacma baboon) tend to be highly promiscuous. 971). Large numbers of animals could displace other competinggroups from essential resources. The process ofbirth and motherhood tends to reinforce social ties. Thus,the more entrenched female baboons have considerable power; for example, itis often a female animal that settles family disputes (Altmann, 1992, pp.48-49). 31). 1 6). I. M., & Dunbar, P. Females may groom their daughters orunrelated male friends (Altmann, 1992, pp. Thus, theyreadily adjust to changing environmental influences. The second plateau environment occurs above the cliffs. Baboon social behavior provides a vivid example of a speciesresponding to evolving environmental circumstances. Primate population sizes aregenerally limited by food availability (Lewin, 1991, p. The hamadryas and gelada baboons, in contrast, display a markedlydifferent mating system. For instance, the gelada baboons live high-altitude Ethiopian plateaus. Instead, realistic conservationobjectives must be established. In contrast to its diet, baboon grouping behaviors are quitevariable. Thesesmaller reserves might provide a base from which species could recolonizeother areas. Forexample, Sigg (as cited in Dunbar, 1988, p. (1986). 355). (1988, January 25). Inaddition, the baboons also have relatively wide faces, expanded gonealregions, and mandibular "bulges" beneath their posterior molars. Such territories can be upto 15 square kilometers in size, and sometimes overlap with those ofneighboring baboon groups. In the winter though, the cold dry weather atop thesouthern African plateaus causes chacma baboons to disperse into smallersubtroops. These animalshave "long faces, narrow interorbital distances, narrow nasal apertures,relatively marked facial height, a lacrimal fossa confined to an enlargedlacrimal bone, and a median mental foramen" (Schwartz, 1986, p. Traditionally, the Primate order has been divided into two suborders: Prosimii and Anthropoidea. Four primary reasons why animals live in groups could include thefollowing: "(1) foraging efficiency; (2) protection against predators; (3)defense of resources; and (4) improved care-giving opportunities" (Dunbar,1988, p. Secondly, the formation of groups also significant affects animals'ability to defend themselves. (as cited in Dunbar, 1988, p. Primate social systems. This loyalty may extendover a period of time lasting as long as several years. Typically, male baboons will not try to divide theirtime between so many females. M. Surveys should be conducted toassess the animals' survival status, and perhaps also locate suitablereserve areas (Oates, 1986, pp. Essentially though, the basicbaboon social unit is the ancestral multimale group; in contrast, thesocial exception consists of the one-male-group mating system which istypically "nested within a multimale ecological unit" (Dunbar, 1988, p.296). 2). In addition, baboon relations gradually evolve.For example, such changes as death, maturation, or advancing age will exerta modifying influence over baboon interactions.
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