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WOMEN IN COLLEGE SPORTS.
Term Paper ID:23416
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Essay Subject:
Gender-based inequities in university athletic programs, provisions & ineffectiveness of Title IX as legal remedy, economics, social aspects.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Gender-based inequities in university athletic programs, provisions & ineffectiveness of Title IX as legal remedy, economics, social aspects.
Paper Introduction:
INTRODUCTION
Gender roles in Western societies have been changing rapidly in recent years, with the changes created both by evolutionary changes in society, including economic shifts which have altered the way people work and indeed which people work as more and more women enter the workforce, and by pressure brought to make changes because of the perception that the traditional social structure was inequitable. Gender relations are part of the socialization process, the initiation given the young by society, teaching them certain values and creating in them certain behavior patterns acceptable to their social roles. These roles have been in a state of flux in American society in recent years, and men and women today can be seen as having expanded their roles in society, with women entering formerly male dominions and
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The degree of failure of Title IX is apparent in a survey conductedby The Chronicle of Higher Education in 1993-94 which showed that maleathletes enjoy more scholarship money and more sports opportunities thantheir female counterparts in U.S. Title IX was seen as the key that opened the door to athleticopportunity for thousands of young women in spite of its failure to achieveparity. The women who participate have differing skilllevels but report that they much prefer playing baseball than softball(Beuttler, 1993, 139). For the first time, 64 women's teams--the same number as there were for the men--were granted tournament berths. "A level field?" (1996, April 12). 2) The provision of equipment and supplies. Scholastic Update, 11. One of the more successful women's team programs in the U.S. A recent court case shows this to be true. At least 8 women's teams have beenadded to colleges across the country since 1982, and more and more sportsassociations are taking a leadership role in this effort. Tara Vanderveer is the coach of America'snational team for the 1996 Olympics, and she started as a women'sbasketball coach at Stanford Unversity a decade ago and found few fans atthe time. Yudof,Kirp, van Geel, and Levin (1982) state that there are ten factorsconsidered relevant in determining the existence of equal opportunity underTitle IX regulations: 1) Whether the selection of sports and levels of accommodation areeffective in accommodating the interests and abilities of members of bothsexes. Full equality in college sports has not yet arrived in the United States but it is coming closer, thanks to a dogged legal campaign by sportswomen angered by fewer choices and smaller budgets ("Sports lib," 1994, 98).One reason for this has been legal action, since Congress in 1972 passed ameasure called "Title IX" as part of a legislative package that prohibitedsexual discrimination in federally-funded college programs. The call to reduce costs has beenseen as a reason for eliminating women's programs instead of men's by many. In 1991 the NCAAvoted to support gender equity as a basic principle of the organization,and other conferences have also made similar votes (Tarkan, 1995, 25-26). There are women's leagues, but they pay as little as$2 , a season, compared to the millions a male can make even as abeginner. One such effort has been led by Congressman Dennis Hastert, anIllinois Republican and a former wrestling coach. Boysusually get uniforms each year while girls get them every three years.Boys sleep two to a room on road trips, and girls sleep four to a room.Schools offer junior varsity teams to boys but not to girls. Women can be owners (as can be seen in the caseof Marge Schott of the Cincinnati Reds, though she has twice been punishedfor making statements that some think might have been ignored had she beena man). In spite of the fact thatcollege enrollments are 52 percent female, only 31 percent of all athletesenrolled in NCAA member institutions in 1985-1986 were female, and only 3 percent of the athletes participating at National Junior College AthleticAssociation institutions were women. Thisproposed standard suggests that institutions should strive for proportionalparticipation in sports, and football officials felt this would damagetheir programs. Thedecisions in these cases will help explain further Title IX of theEducation Amendments of 1972. According to Sheldon E. The NCAA polled 646 member colleges in the early 199 s andfound that 645 of them were not even close to meeting equity standards asset forth by law (Schrof, 1994, 51). He recently requestedthat a House subcommittee hearing be held to reconsider the way Title IX isenforce, claiming that young men are losing their opportunity to competebecause money is siphoned away to female athletes. (1994, August 11). In 1993, the NCAAheld three hearings on a preliminary plan to increase female sportsparticipation by linking athletics programs to the college's overall male-female ratio. "A sporting chance?" U.S. Women also make up less than 3 percent of athleticdirectors at Division I colleges. In the earlyyears after its passage, college campuses across the country rushed tochange their sports programs to meet the 1978 deadline. Suggestions have been made by the women's Sports Foundationand others as to how this might be corrected, such as by reducing thestandard of living of football players, as some schools put their teams ina hotel before home games and routinely give players an allowance for meals(Tarkan, 1995, 26). Lederman, D. "Slow progress on equity." TheChronicle of Higher Education, A45-A47. The law calls for the total amount of scholarshipaid made available to men and women to be substantially proportionate totheir participation rates (Lapchick and Slaughter, 1989, 34). 5) Opportunity to receive coaching and academic tutoring. Indeed, such high-profile women's teams are noticeable precisely because they are so rare. and J.B. van Geel, and B. Indeed, nearly every measure ofparity, from the quality of the equipment to budgets for promotion, favorsmale athletes. Some monthslater, the federal judge in this case accused officials at Colorado stateUniversity of disregarding a court order to reinstate women's softball.U.S. As noted, the publicpays to see male athletic events and is more reluctant to pay to see femaleevents except in special circumstances or for special events. When Title IX was passed, more than 9 percent of those coachingwomen's sports were themselves women, but today only 48 percent of women'scoaches are female. (1993c, March 31). Kirp, T. "Judge tells Colorado State to reinstatewomen's softball." The Chronicle of Higher Education, A4 . District Judge Zita L. But the camera betrayed the truth. Most football programs in fact do not make a profitand actually lose money, and this means that football in effect drainsathletic funds that might otherwise be put to other use, such as women'ssports teams. Women on the Olympic teamhope that their success will spur efforts to create a professional women'sbasketball league and to garner the audience necessary for that to occur.Earlier efforts at major women's leagues have failed, and as a result majorwomen ahtletes in America have had to go overseas, where they commandsalaries ranging up to $2 , . GROWING CONTROVERSY The aforementioned National Collegiate Athletic Associationbasketball tournament may have featured women's teams, but it also causedmany to take note of the problem of women's athletics in America for thefirst time: In the championship competition last weekend, network television cameras captured battles waged by strong, skilled athletes in front of roaring, sell-out crowds--testimony that women had finally arrived at the pinnacle of school sports. This meant that women administrators lostdecision-making power and control of the development of women's programs,and concern was expressed by HEW regarding this possibility (Lapchick andSlaughter, 1989, 33). Women's baseball has not done well in thecollegiate world, which will certainly slow any attempt to create aprofessional league. At the time of the passage of Title IX, opportunities for womenwere already on the rise, and this increased greatly after passage. Therewas a time when men were sent to college and women were not, and womenfought their way into our institutions of higher learning and showed thatthey could benefit greatly from the experience and that society wouldbenefit as well. Women'sorganizations are not satisfied with the small changes in college sportsprograms which many coaches and athletes consider significant, and in factonly 16 institutions have attained proportionality in 1993-94, a misleadingfigure given the fact that the proportion of women was greater in thesecolleges (Blum, 1994, A45-A47). Even when they write about the matterand bring it to light, little changes, and sports figures, coaches, andowners continue to fight back in what is clearly a losing battle for them.Women sports reporters will not go away, and players should get used to it. Since 1982, the numberof National Collegiate Athletic Association women's soccer teams increasedfrom 8 to 446, creating the most extensive intercollegiate women's soccersystem in the world. Malekoff (1987). "Women turn to the courts infight for more sports opportunities." The Chronicle of Higher Education,A27-A28. The Rules of the game:Ethics in college sport. New York: Macmillan. DeFord (ed.). The 1994 women's tournament ofbasketball was cited recently as a milestone for sexual equality in spiteof the fact that it was largely ignored by the press: Even so the 1994 women's tournament (which the University of North Carolina won in the final second of the final game on April 3rd) has been a milestone for sexual equality. Whetherthis is the reason or not, it should be clear that there is opposition towomen becoming involved in professional sports even in capacities involvingcurrent male sports teams. 8) The provision of medical and training facilities. Weinshiek called for the hearing based onnewspaper articles saying that the university had no intention ofcomplying with her ruling to reinstate the sport until it had exhausted theappeals process. References Beuttler, B. Under Title IX, what is required is equal participation opportunitiesrather than equal numbers of sport programs for male and female athletes.The average number of sports now offered for women has grown to 7.31 perschool, as opposed to 5.61 before Title IX. This is deceptive, however,for when women's sports are added to college athletics programs, they areoften low-participation sports such as cross-country, golf, or tennis, allof which require minimal funding. On the mark. There are today nearly twice as manyboys as girls playing high school sports and more than twice as manycollege men as college women. Severalnational team stars have committed to play in the American Basketballleague, if it gets started, and the NBA has been talking about creating aleague as well. (1993a, February 17). A federaljudge ruled in favor of the women's gymnastics and volleyball teams atBrown University, finding that the school's athletic opportunities forwomen were not proportionate with its female enrollment. It is still commonplace at secondary schools forboys' teams to be given assistant coaches while girls' teams are not. (1995, June 19). According to theBig Ten plan, women must be provided at least 4 percent of the athleticopportunities given to men by 1997 (Blum 1993a, A34-A35). Colleges and universities remain a battleground of ideasand social change, and today one such battle involves the desire forequitable treatment of women in terms of providing opportunities in sports. Lapchick, R.E. Newspaper coverage shows a prejudicefor male teams over female teams, and many Americans may have only a vagueidea of the extent of women's sports. In practice, and to save money, most of the collegiate men'sand women's athletic programs were merged under single administrativestructures, with the director of the men's program, taking the topadministrative position. (1993, September 6). BACKGROUND Institutions of higher education are obligated by law and by ideas offairness to provide equal educational opportunity for both men and women,and meeting these legal and philosophical obligations in intercollegiateathletics requires a distribution of existing limited financial resourcesand the identification of new revenue sources in order to develop existingwomen's sports programs and to increase the number of such opportunitiesfor female student-athletes. Thiscaused some surprise among other leagues since none have initiated aprogram for sports sex equity as dramatically as this. Colleges offer twice as much money inathletic scholarships to men and spend five times more to recruit maleathletes. "The girls of summer." SportsIllustrated, 139. This hopefulsign did not produce the massive change promised as yet, and there has alsobeen some backlash against the effort at achieving sex equity in collegesports. Levin (1982).Educational policy and the law. There is some hope now because twonew leagues have announced plans to form here by next fall. These professionals have been subjected to harassment, innuendo, outrighthostility, and sexual harassment. Collegiate sports has faced afinancial crunch in recent years, and this has produced budget cutbackswhich have affected both men's and women's sports programs equally eventhough there is a disproportional impact on women's sports by such anaction (Lapchick and Slaughter, 1989, 41). Lapchick, R.E. Lexington,Massachusetts: Lexington Books. This leavesthe impact of Title IX uncertain and also is one of the reasons why so manycases were brought up for investigation (Lapchick & Malekoff, 1987, 112). Because of this,the United States made great strides in this sport. Manycolleges have been improving their gender-equity record, though whetherthis is out of fear of legal reprisal or a belief that it is the rightthing to do is difficult to say. SOCIETAL PROBLEMS There is a perception of American professional sports figures asbeing generally biased against women, sexist in their actions, and asopposed to women in sports in any capacity, seeing the movement of womeninto sports as somehow "unnatural." For many, the same sort of descriptionextends to the average male sports fan, which is why it is believed thatsports fans in general do not want to watch women's sports teams. However, Colorado State's general counsel said thenewspaper reports were inaccurate and that the university had forcefullytried to carry out the court order (Blum, 1993c, A29-A3 ). How thiswill develop in the future will determine how committed colleges become towomen's sports. Colorado State withdrew its baseball andsoftball programs in 1992 citing budgetary problems in its sports programs,and University spokesperson Roselyn Cutler said that the school wouldappeal the decision because the court unjustly looked upon the sportsparticipation rates of males and females (Blum, 1993b, A4 ). SinceCongress reinstated Title IX in 1988, women who have brought their case tocourt have never lost, with the score standing at about 31 to . INTRODUCTION Gender roles in Western societies have been changing rapidly inrecent years, with the changes created both by evolutionary changes insociety, including economic shifts which have altered the way people workand indeed which people work as more and more women enter the workforce,and by pressure brought to make changes because of the perception that thetraditional social structure was inequitable. (1995, November 27). (1993a, January 13). One of the primary spurs to these changes has been asearch for equity, for the truly equal treatment before the law thatAmerican society has always promised but has not always delivered. The field of sports seems to be treated asdifferent from other endeavors, as if sports were a male bastion thatcannot be breached. As it happens, the rising tide complaining about Title IX has arrived atthe same time as the courts have started to put their power behind the law,and schools are today faced with a steady stream of lawsuits brought bywomen athletes demanding their right to participate in sports. Five of the cases are in the federal courts, and casesinvolving Brown and Colgate Universities are in the appeals courts. "Athletic conferences struggle withissue of sex equity." The Chronicle of Higher Education, A34-A35. "NCAA urged to find stronger incentivesfor compliance with gender-equity plan." The Chronicle of HigherEducation, A27-A28. The school vowed to fightthe decision, but the tide does seem to be moving the other way.Congressman Hastert claims that the only way to view this issue is in termsof interest, and he says women have not been as interested in sports ashave men and so do not want or need the same programs (Tarkan, 1995, 27). "American women: getting their kicks." U.S. Yet this event also points up another waywomen's sports differ from men's--when the season was over, the members ofthe team knew that their basketball careers were over as well. Schrof, J.M. and R. yet some nations have created programs that are farin advance of that in the U.S. Resourcedistribution is also off balance at the college level, and this is largelybecause high-visibility men's sports are thought to make big money, asnoted. First, the passage ofTitle IX forced many secondary school administrators to provide athleticopportunities for girls where they had not done so before. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Women are not found in management, and the one type of woman whohas managed to push her way into the male bastion of professional sports isthe journalist, who has still encountered considerable opposition andsexist behavior. Excelling in sports has long been seen as a male prerogative, and inthis area women remain far behind because of the structure of both amateurand professional sports in America. Even as women become more common in these jobs, theyhave trouble achieving higher status an becoming executives. In 1993, the Big Ten conference of the top ten colleges anduniversities involved in athletics in 1992 voted to include women and toincrease the number of female athletes in their athletic programs. (1993b, June 3 ). "Looking for a slam-dunk: the U.S.women's team wants to win a gold medal and jump-start a pro league."Newsweek, 76. Even if the number of sports for men andwomen were equal, participation ratios would be skewed by the fact thatmen's team rosters have 5 to 1 members. . These roles have been in a state offlux in American society in recent years, and men and women today can beseen as having expanded their roles in society, with women enteringformerly male dominions and men finding new ways to relate to and functionin the family unit. DISPARATE TREATMENT Whether there are women's sports teams or not is not the only issue,for a related matter is how much is allocated to each group in terms ofresources and personnel. a recent case shows this to be true. Jennifer Briggs of the Dallas Observer had wanted to be in sports somehowsince childhood, and as a reporter all she wanted to do was cover sports.She found that the job entailed a good deal of degradation and humiliationas a matter of course, and no matter how much she may have wanted simply todo the job and be treated the same as other reporters, she found it was notto be: I have complained little through the years because the last thing I ever wanted was to single myself out from the guys. 9) Provision of housing and dining facilities and services. Women sports writers face discrimination and abuse from a variety ofsources--the players, team owners, their fellow newsgatherers, theireditors, and the public. While the world at large may not have noted the disparity, the womenthemselves noted it and have sought relief in the courts. Thenext night there was a paying crowd of 7,391 at Stanford's Maples Pavilion,along with a national TV audience. The law was restored 4 years later, but itwas evident that by then, federal agencies were overburdened and lacked theresources to make inspections or enforce the law. I just wanted to cover sports (Briggs, 1993, 191). Title IX had a positive impact on participationrates in college athletics (Lapchick & Malekoff, 1987, 111). (1993d, June 2). Blum, D.E. The American Women's Baseball Association was founded in suburbanChicago, Illinois in 1988 and now has two other chapters in Miami, Floridaand Lansing, Michigan. Women have also been pursuing the issuethrough college sports organizations such as the NCAA. 7) The provision of locker rooms, practice and competitivefacilities, on an equal basis. Blum, D.E. "My life in the locker room." In The BestAmerican Sports Writing 1993, F. Women make up 51percent of the undergraduates at the university, but they have only 38percent of the opportunities to play in sports. "Judge says Colorado State is'stonewalling' her order to reinstate women's softball." The Chronicle ofHigher Education, A29-A3 . Blum, D.E. A second reasonwas the number of high school parents, principals, and athletic directorswho had already realized that there was a need for greater opportunities insports programs for women. "Sports lib." The Economist (April 9, 1994), 98. Slaughter (1989). Women's rights advocates and women's sports officialsattended the hearings and asked for incentives and sanctions to encouragecompliance. This is only one bit of evidenceshowing that women's basketball may be gaining ground. . Blum, D.E. 6) The assignment and compensation of coaches and tutors. The Title IX law started as a simple proposal holding that males andfemales could and should benefit equally from sports programs, but theissue was soon embroiled in a political argument that has kept Americansociety from achieving true equity for more than 2 years. Indeed, football officials were so angry overthese proposals that they were threatening--as they had before--to secedefrom the NCAA. The most money comes from television revenues,but networks and advertisers have no interest in women's sports because theaudience is so small ("A level field?," 1996, 11). While schools may resist such changes, they may also have littlechoice in the long run. The court found out that female athletes are'underrepresented' in the school's sports program, and the decision wasseen as a clear indication that courts will side with female athletes whostand up for their rights. 3) The scheduling of games and practice time. Berkeley: McCutchan.----------------------- 1 These findings are similar tothose in the survey conducted by the National Collegiate AthleticAssociation in 198 , showing how little progress has been made. (1993). The broader problem is seen by some as derivingfrom football and from the big money that can come to a school through itsfootball team and associated contracts for television and other sources.The men's department does not want to share the money it makes, andinstitutions that sponsor football do not have any incentive for matchingwith women's sports. Even Title IX has only scratchedthe surface in making changes in colleges and universities, and until theyare changed, society at large will not develop a more equitable system forprofessional sports. The involvement of the NBA has already led to corporatebacking for the women's teams, and the practice session the night beforethe Stanford game had a sponsor in Jell-O (Starr, 1995, 76). It was assumed that the big conferences would be unlikelyto secede because of the difficulties of developing an alternativeorganization, but it was thought that they might succeed in getting theNCAA panel to weaken its proposed equity standard and also gain morecontrol within the NCAA structure, which may have been the real intent(Lederman, 1993b, A29-A3 ). 1 ) Publicity (Yudof, Kirp, van Geel, and Levin, 1982, 755).Other factors can also be cited, such as funds for scholarships andrecruiting practices. In the State of Illinois, an answer to the problem has been developedwith passage of a bill that would give state universities the right toallocate more funds to athletics, and this money would enable the schoolsto add more women's sports or more female athletes in existing sports. Thes women have had to face difficultiesin spite of their high salaries because they are far from home in countrieslike France, Italy, Spain, and Japan. The women's national soccer team won the inaugural Women'sWorld Cup in 1991, and the team has since won 7 percent of its games.They emerged from a trend that started in the 197 s with a boom in youthsoccer leagues that created a nation full of young women eager to playcollege soccer just when federal law mandated that starting in 1978 collegeathletics should treat male and female students equally. Women insports like basketball have nowhere to play except in a college setting,while the successful male athlete can sometimes go to the ranks ofprofessional sports. They expressed concerns that the new gender-equitydefinition put forth by a special NCAA panel would be detrimental. In 1993the women's softball program at Colorado State University was restoredfollowing a court decision. The reason for this is money, for at both the collegiate andprofessional levels, women's sports draw fewer crowds and generate lessmoney than men's sports. Still, fullequality has proven elusive. He is not the only oneclaiming that women's athletics are cutting into male athletic programs,and this sort of complaint has increased as schools have encounteredproblems in funding and have had to cut back by eliminating men's teams insports such as swimming and wrestling. I didn't want to be branded as some woman on a crusade. Briggs, J. Blum, D.E. (1993b, March 3). More recently, she returned with her squad to play at Stanfordand was greeted by 1,2 fans, there only for the team's practice. Gender relations are part ofthe socialization process, the initiation given the young by society,teaching them certain values and creating in them certain behavior patternsacceptable to their social roles. News & World Report, 59. In 1995 theUniversity of Connecticut's perfect 35- season, with its Phi Beta Kappastar Rebecca Lobo, attracted national attention. Women sportsreporters' experiences in the locker room seem to agree in all particulars. In fact, though, it is not relevant whether men's sports make moneyor not: A team's earning capacity is irrelevant in the eyes of the law, which views athletics not as small businesses but as targets for equal educational opportunity (Schrof, 1994, 52). colleges. Steinbach of theAmerican Council on Education, the decisions will define what compliance inthe future means, and he believes that women students are not bestserved without guidelines from the courts regarding provisions of the law(Lederman, 1993a, A27-A28). Within six years,the percentage of school athletes who were female rose from 7 percent toabout 33 percent. Starr, M. In the U.S., as with other women's sports,organized soccer for women basically ends with college graduation, while incountries such as Sweden, Norway and Germany, there are professionalleagues that enable women players to keep improving into their 3 s (Schrof,1995, 59). Itwould also make it possible to keep the men's teams intact, which wouldhelp satisfy everyone. Lederman, D. Title IX alsoapplies only to those educational institutions which receive governmentfunding for their athletic departments, and most athletic programs arefunded by student fees, alumni donations, and ticket sales. CONCLUSION Women continue to be treated differently on and off the fieldwhenever they attempt to gain an equal footing in the sports world, whetherat the collegiate or professional level. Twomajor reasons are cited for this increase in growth. has beenfor soccer. The result has been ahypocritical situation where what is spoken and what is done are quitedifferent: Today, it is impossible to find an athletic director who does not publicly proclaim support for the principle of gender equity in sports, but it is also nearly impossible to find a school that fully complies with the law (Schrof, 1994, 52). 4) Travel and per diem allowance. A series of events stalled further growth, however,beginning with a 1984 Supreme Court decision that overturned Title IX,causing the Education Department's Office of Civil Rights to scrap allinvestigations then in progress. The legal obligation derives from Title IX ofthe Education Amendments of 1972 which stats as follows: No person in the United Stats shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance (Lapchick and Slaughter, 1989, 33).The Department of health, Education, and Welfare did not issue theregulations designed to implement Title IX for three years, and during thattime a number of misconceptions about the law were promulgated anddisseminated. News &World Report, 51-53. However, the scope of the problem can be seen in the fact thatfootball officials expressed concern that college football programs wouldbe seriously damaged by the plan and did not even attend the hearings(Blum, 1993d, A27-A28). Coaches of women's basketball teams,which is one of the more visible sports for women, earn only 59 percent ofwhat coaches of men's teams are paid. Women have attempted to create an American women's baseball league aswell. The courts and the regulations interpret the Title IX statute in sucha way as to state that it is not required that there be equal per capitaexpenditures of dollars on male and female athletes, but the pattern ofexpenditures is expected to be sufficient so as not to result in adisparate effect on opportunity (Lapchick and Slaughter, 1989, 34). Women's basketball is the team sport that has made the most progress,and the fact that it is featured in the Olympics may bring more fans out ofthe woodwork in coming years. "Angry football powers talk ofleaving NCAA over its sex-equity proposal." The Chronicle of HigherEducation, A29-A3 . CONTINUING INEQUITIES A women's sports team was again thrust into the spotlight recentlywhen the University of Connecticut Huskies advanced to the national women'sbasketball finals in April and brought about a spate of sold-out games andnational television coverage. Schrof, J.M. (1994, October 26). Yudof, M.G., D.L. Twenty-two years after the passage of the federal law known as Title IX--guaranteeing equal sporting opportunities for male and female students--women athletes are still second-class citizens in a man's world (Schrof, 1994, 51).The evidence of this seems clear. PROGRESS IN WOMEN'S SPORTS Many women's sports programs have produced outstanding athletes andgood records which should make it more possible to improve these programsand increase participation, but as long as money is earned by men'sathletics and not by women's, progress will be slow. Female athletesare filing lawsuits in their quest for opportunities and funding forcollege sports.
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