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DETRAINING OF ATHLETES.
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Physical effects (muscle weakening, endurance decrease) of stopping training regimen.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Physical effects (muscle weakening, endurance decrease) of stopping training regimen.
Paper Introduction:
DETRAINING
Introduction
Detraining by athletes results in decreased effects of many aspects of muscle conditioning in the human body. Detraining changes in enzyme activity, cholesterol levels, oxygen consumption, muscle strength and endurance, and muscle atrophy are demonstrated; exercise benefits may be lost after four to eight weeks of detraining.
Effects of Detraining
The effects of proper training are numerous. Increases motor-skill performance are found; training produces adjustments to the muscles which make them injury-resistant. Exercise produces less muscle protein accumulation in the blood, indicating less tissue damage and muscle soreness for the trained
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(1976). Exercise produces less muscle proteinaccumulation in the blood, indicating less tissue damage and musclesoreness for the trained athlete. In 1992, they further explored muscle strength decrease subsequent todetraining, with the study of the relationship of the torque-velocity formaximum voluntary concentric and eccentric muscle actions and functionalstrength performance after training and detraining. (1993). All were similar in age,stature, body mass, and weight-lifting patterns. Spine, 17(12), 1497-15 1.Wibom, R., Hultman, E., Johansson, M., Matherei, K., Constantin-Teodosiu,D., & Schantz, P. studied the effects of detraining on lumbar extension strength for5 subjects (34 men, aged 34+/-11 years; and 16 women, aged 33+/-11 years),recruited from ongoing strength training programs. Reduced trainingconsisted of 12 weeks of reduced frequency of training programs thattrained once every two weeks or once every four weeks; detraining subjectswere restricted from any physical activity that could influence lumbarextension strength for 12 weeks. Acta PhysiologicaScandinavica, 14 , 31-39.Colliander, E. Sixteen healthy athletes underwent a two-week period of detraining. Muscle Strength Decrease Studies report changes in muscular strength from detraining,following a heavy resistance training program. Training results in increases motor-skillperformance, less muscle protein accumulation in the blood, increases inenergy production and enzyme activities, decreases in body fat, decreasesin cholesterol levels, and improvement in bone, ligament, and tendonstrength. ReferencesColliander, E. H. A., Stevenson, J. Thus, withdrawal from the exerciseprobably reduced the neural activation of the muscle. Highly trained athletes demonstrating maximal aerobicpower tend to decline rapidly in the first month of inactivity and thendecline to untrained levels after two to three months of inactivity.Adaptations of strength from resistance training are related to differenttypes of overload and the specificity of training implemented. Increases motor-skillperformance are found; training produces adjustments to the muscles whichmake them injury-resistant. Seasons of training in competitors show no significant changesin flexibility measurements, changes found in novices and in athletes atlow competitive levels are also found in children and adolescents engagedin sport, and no differences have been identified between male and femaleathletes (Koutedakis, 1995). Effects of detraining followingshort term resistance training on eccentric and concentric muscle strength.Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 144(1), 23-29.Hortobagyi, T., Houmard, J. The authors demonstrated that lumbarextension strength can be maintained with a reduced frequency of trainingas low as once every four weeks, when the intensity and volume of exerciseare maintained. Additional effects of detraining include changes in serum lipid andlipoprotein concentrations. 1444). E., & Leggett,S. JOPERD, 63(6), 21-25.Madsen, K., Pedersen, P. A. 1444). The effects of detraining on power athletes. Body girths were found to be related to physique or bodystructure; tendencies for reduced or unchanged girth measurements aftertraining were not explained. Changes in body fat trends for competitors suggest alack of subcutaneous fat changes during different seasons of training ordetraining; skiers show increases in body fat following reduced levels ofphysical fitness at the latter stages of competition (Koutedakis, 1995). A. Respiratory exchange ratio was higher in thedetrained; muscle values were unchanged. Adaptation of mitochondrial ATP production inhuman skeletal muscle to endurance training and detraining. They also found a negative correlation (r=-.84)between percentage of reduction in torque at 3 seconds of recovery andmaximal oxygen uptake. Effects of detraining on endurance capacity and metabolic changes during prolonged exhaustive exercise. Conclusion Both training and detraining have been found to result in profoundchanges in the human body. Elite athletes participating in physicallydemanding sports demonstrate unchanged or increased maximal respiratoryparameters, during both off- and in-season periods; no reports ofreductions have been found (Koutedakis, 1995). Journal of Clinical Investigation, 92(5), 2124-213 .Thorstensson, A., & Karlsson, J. studied four subjects with no regularendurance exercise training who participated in a 12-week program ofintense endurance exercise training and six endurance-trained subjects whostopped all exercise training for 12 weeks. (1992). Thus, Type II fibers atrophyappears to cause a decline in muscle strength. Endurance can be improved with training, and itdeteriorates with detraining. Thus "altered substrate utilization or changes inelectrolyte regulation may account for the reduced endurance capacity" (p.1444). Wibom, Hultman, Johansson, Matherei, Constantin-Teodosiu, and Schantz(1992) studied nine healthy men before and after six weeks of endurancetraining and three weeks of detraining. L., Graves, J. The effects of competition and detraining are reported by Koutedakis(1995). (1989). Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 98,318-322.Tucci, J. Mitochondrial ATP production andmitochondrial enzyme activities were shown to increase with endurancetraining and to decrease with detraining. M., & Holloszy, J. Decreases may be minimizedwith reduced training, and appropriate exercise intensity maintained. Three months of detraining wereassociated with these reductions, in young female athletes; the 16 percentdecrease in maximum oxygen uptake was similar to the 17 percent loss foundin a group of young men after 2 days of complete bed rest. K., Djurhuus, M. No changes were found infree weight bench press, parallel squat, isometric and isokineticconcentric knee extension force, and vertical jumping; however, isokineticeccentric knee extension force was decreased in every subject. (1995). Tucci, Carpenter, Pollock, Graves, and Leggett (1991) also reportedthat effects of detraining on muscle strength decrease are well documented,with demonstrations of decrements of 55 percent-7 percent after 8-12 weeksof detraining. Effects of Detraining The effects of proper training are numerous. T., Carpenter, D. R., Coyle, E. Plasma hormonal levels also change followingdetraining. Musclefiber type percentages and Type I fiber area remained unchanged; however,Type II fiber areas decreased significantly. After one month of detraining,the high density lipoprotein-cholesterol levels decreased in five patients,and total cholesterol:high density lipoprotein-cholesterol levels increasedfor the group. Endurance Decrease Sinacore, Coyle, Hagberg, and Holloszy (1993) report that localmuscle endurance is influenced by muscle fiber type composition.Thorstensson and Karlsson (1976) demonstrated that the decline in maximalforce after 5 repeated isokinetic contractions was significantlycorrelated to the percentage of fast-twitch fibers in the vastus lateralismuscles of male college students, demonstrating the relationship betweenmuscle fiber distributions and the decline in force over repeatedcontractions. S., & McAllister, B. B., & Tesch, P. Detraining results in deficits in these and other areas.Studies demonstrate that detraining results in increased cholesterol,decreased maximum oxygen uptake, decreased enzymes, decreased musclestrength and endurance, and muscle atrophy. Thus, they conclude that endurance capacitycorrelates with alterations in proportions of type IIa and type IIb musclefibers, and maximal oxygen uptake. Changes in endurance that wereobserved after detraining included reduced preexercise muscle glycogenstores, reduced utilization of free fatty acids (35 percent), and alteredMg2+ transport from the extracellular to the intracellular area, inhibitingCa2+ release. (1992). Madsen et al. A., & Israel, R. Athletes competing at levels lower than elite demonstrate decreasesin muscle strength; a significant drop in both maximal concentric andeccentric quadriceps and hamstring torques, occurring over a season ofamateur ice hockey, was found, in spite of two-three training sessions andtwo games per week throughout the season; no relationships were reportedbetween the drop in muscle strength and injury rates and/or performance.Inappropriate training intensities could account for these reportedfindings. Body density is found to increase in male andfemale competitors, following periods of seasonal training and periods ofrest (detraining). Effects of eccentric andconcentric muscle actions in resistance training. They concluded that these strength gains were likely the result of neuraladaptations because an increase in muscle fibre size or contents ofcontractile enzymes was not found. The decrease in musclelipoprotein lipase, with an increase in adipose lipoprotein lipase, yieldsa condition which favors adipose tissue storage. Sinacore et al. An additional group of 11subjects performed a single isokinetic fatigue test with recovery and agraded treadmill or bicycle ergometer test to determine maximal oxygenuptake. Detraining changes in enzymeactivity, cholesterol levels, oxygen consumption, muscle strength andendurance, and muscle atrophy are demonstrated; exercise benefits may belost after four to eight weeks of detraining. Simsolo, Ong, and Kern (1993) also studied lipoproteinlipase regulation by exercise. Also, gains in off-season muscle strength cannot be maintainedfor the entire competition season for elite competitors, and such patternsare likely to impair sports performance (Koutedakis, 1995). (1993). Physical Therapy, 73(1 ), 661-667.Simsolo, R. The authors evaluated effects of endurance training and detrainingand found a positive correlation (r=.75) between the percentage ofreduction in torque at 3 seconds of recovery and the change in proportionof fiber composition. b., Ong, J. D., Johns, R. studied the effects of four weeks of detraining in ninewell-trained endurance athletes; mean age, height, and body mass were27.3=/-1.7 year, 179+/-2cm, and 69.6+/-2.2 kg, respectively. For the current study, seven athletes (mean age 25 years, mean height176 cm, and mean weight 67 kg) who had been brought to the emergency roomfollowing an exercise-related injury to the legs were recruited; theathletes had been engaged in regular physical endurance training, such asbicycling or soccer, with a training history of five or more years. Athletes withmore developed aerobic capacities tend to show no seasonal variations inrespiratory parameters. Sports Medicine, 19(6), 373-392.Krebs, P. Only concentric and eccentric regimesinduced a change in the shape of torque-velocity curves after detraining.It was assumed that the performance of eccentric muscle actions is neededto optimize increases in muscular strength from heavy resistance training,because of its ability to induce greater and more long-lived neuraladaptations than that of concentric actions (Colliander & Tesch, 1992). DETRAINING Introduction Detraining by athletes results in decreased effects of many aspectsof muscle conditioning in the human body. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 59, 31 -319.Sinacore, D. Also, those whohave been training for many years, increases in muscle capillarization andmitochondrial enzymes, disappear more slowly after the end of training thando for those who have only trained for a few months. Changes in force, cross-sectional area and neural activation during strength training and detraining of the human quadriceps. Detraining results in deficits for all facets ofconditioning (Krebs and McAllister, 1992; Wibom, Hultman, Johansson,Matherei, Constantin-Teodosiu, & Schantz, 1992). Motoyama, Sunami, Kinoshita, Irie, Sasaki,Arakawa, Kiyonaga, Tanaka, and Shindo (1995) studied the effects of long-term, low-intensity aerobic training and detraining in 3 elderly men andwomen. A. Journal of Applied Physiology, 72(3),12 1-12 4.Koutedakis, Y. Seasonal variation in fitness parameters incompetitive athletes. Twelve well-trained men participated in 14 daysof resistive exercise detraining; four were power-lifters, and eight wereformer Division I American football players. (1993). European Journal of AppliedPhysiology and Occupational Physiology, 7 (2), 126-131.Narici, M. O. Novice athletes with low aerobic capacities tend to demonstratefluctuations in aerobic fitness between training and detraining seasons.Detraining is associated with significantly reduced maximum oxygen uptakeand maximum pulmonary ventilation. (199 ). Resultsdemonstrated greater preservation of concentric and eccentric peak torqueafter detraining following coupled concentric and eccentric than followingconcentric resistance training. Strength increase that isacquired during training is reported as reduced to approach the pretraininglevel after the training stimulus is withdrawn; other studies state thatthe decrease in strength during the detraining period seems to be less thanhe strength acquired in response to a training program of the same duration(Colliander and Tesch, 1992; Narici, Roi, Landoni, Minetti, and Cerretelli,1989). V., Roi, G. Maximal oxygen uptake and maximal cardiacoutput increase that occur with an increase with training may explainimproved endurance; however, endurance can also improve without pronouncedchanges in oxygen uptake, indicating that other factors related to theexercising muscle may be responsible: "Skeletal muscle oxidative enzymaticactivity can be increased with endurance training and so can capillarydensity and preexercise muscle glycogen concentration"; this may also bethe cause of improved endurance (p. Muscle Atrophy Further investigation into the causes of decreased muscle strength indetraining includes a study by Hortobagyi, Houmard, Stevenson, Fraser,Johns, and Israel (1993). Strength Loss Time Frame Krebs and McAllister (1992) report that "fitness benefits fromtraining may be completely lost after only four to eight weeks ofdetraining" (p. The effects of long-term lowintensity aerobic training and detraining on serum lipid and lipoproteinconcentrations in elderly men and women. Colliander and Tesch (199 ) reported their findings that resistancetraining comprising coupled concentric and eccentric muscle actionsincreases strength more than training using concentric muscle actions only. Effect of 5 wk of detraining on epinephrine response to insulin-induced hypoglycemia in athletes. (1992). (1995). The effects of detraining were studied by Koutedakis (1995). Effect of reduced frequency of training and detraining onlumbar extension strength. Subjects were placed in two groups: the training group used atreadmill; the control group did not perform any particular training.Training periods resulted in increased high density lipoprotein-cholesteroland decreased total cholesterol; no changes in triglyceride and low densitylipoprotein-cholesterol levels were found. M., Pollock, M. Kjaer, Mikines, Linstow, Nicolaisen, and Galbo (1992) report thatadaptations in maximal oxygen consumption, concentration of oxidativemuscle enzymes and muscle capillarization, and reduction of work-inducedsympathetic nervous activity that develop in a short time usually wanewithin a few weeks of detraining; however, it usually takes months to yearsfor a slowly acquired increase in heart size to vanish. Fatiguability and fibrecomposition of human skeletal muscle. However, the authors state that strength change may notreflect changes as specific points throughout the range of motion. 21). Detraining resulted in a decrease inlipoprotein lipase activity in the muscle. B., & Tesch, P. The regulation of adipose tissue and muscle lipoprotein lipase in runners by detraining. Twenty-five healthymales were studied; subjects trained for 12 weeks, and resistance trainingwas not performed during the 12-week detraining period. Theauthors reported their findings, that heart rate returned to basal valuesmore rapidly than in sedentary subjects, indicating that the training-induced increase in vagal activity is not completely lost within five weeksof detraining. This study also found that enhanced capacities to secreteepinephrine were maintained during detraining (4-6 weeks), demonstrating aslow reversal of a training-induced adaptation in secretory capacity. Maintaining optimal fitnesslevels when injured. These diminishing results mayappear in as little as four to eight weeks. F., Hagberg, J. Subjects wereexperienced triathletes, cyclists, or runners; all included cycling intheir training programs. A. All had been training for more than four years.Detraining showed no effect on oxygen uptake, but endurance capacitydecreased by 21 percent. S., & Klitgaard, N. G. V., Nicolaisen, T., & Galbo, H.(1992). Journal ofApplied Physiology, 73(5), 2 4-2 1 .----------------------- 1 Tucciet al. J., Linstow, M. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(8), 929-935.Kjaer, M., Mikines, K. Inelite competitors, anaerobic parameters such as heart frequencies,subcutaneous fat, flexibility and haemoglobin levels were found to remainunchanged throughout training and detraining periods; however, aerobicmetabolism and muscular strength have demonstrated noticeable andunfavorable changes. E., & Cerretelli, P. Strengthgains can be maintained for up to 12 weeks with training frequency reducedto one or two days per week; "deficits will occur from short periods ofinactivity within the trained state for all facets of conditioning" (p.21). G. (1992). S., Landoni, L., Minetti, A. Madsen, Pedersen, Djurhuus, and Klitgaard (1993) define endurancecapacity as "the maximal time to exhaustion at a given submaximal exerciseintensity" (p. M., & Kern, P. Increases in energy production,decreases in body fat, decreases in cholesterol levels, and improvement inbone, ligament, and tendon strength are also found in the trained athlete.Training results in increases in enzyme activities; decreases are foundwith detraining. R., Fraser, D. (1993). Journal of Applied Physiology, 75(4), 1444-1451.Motoyama, M., Sunami, Y., Kinoshita, F., Irie, T., Sasaki, J., Arakawa, K.,Kiyonaga, A., Tanaka, H., & Shindo, M.
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