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CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS & PROTEINS.
Term Paper ID:23700
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Essay Subject:
Examines role of these carbon compounds in human diet & nutrition, related to organic chemistry.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines role of these carbon compounds in human diet & nutrition, related to organic chemistry.
Paper Introduction:
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. Carbon compounds are central to the existence of every life form on earth. They make up the muscles of animals and human, the stems and leaves of plants, the molecules that transfer genetic information, protective clothing, hydrocarbons that breakdown to provide the energy for transport, and perhaps most important the food products for nutrition. In this paper, aspects of the relationship between organic chemistry and the three major food groups - carbohydrates, lipids and proteins - are explored.
An enormous amount of time and energy is spent preparing and eating the food that sustains and maintains human health. Consuming food is pleasurable and culturally significant, as exemplified by the holiday meals at Christmas, Hanukah, and the celebrations at wedding receptions. As a result of the abundance
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The starch granules,which are located in the roots, tubers and seeds of plants, are insolublein cold water. The primary structure denotes the type of peptide bondbetween amino acids. Proteins are the most abundant organic molecules in any cell and arealso the most functionally diverse food group.[8] As hormones and enzymes,they control and drive life function, as tendons and muscles they maintainstructural integrity and allow movement, as the skin and hair used forprotection. [3] W. Principles of Food Chemistry, 2d ed. Starch therefore serves two functions,as a provider of energy and as a building block for the synthesis of othermaterials such as fats. H. W. It is completelyinsoluble in water and is indigestible by humans, who lack cellulases, theenzymes required to break it down. The non-carbohydrate attachments are responsible for the properties of starch suchas the flavor. Pomeranz, Functional Properties of Food Components: FoodScience and Technology, a series of monographs (Orlando, FL: AcademicPress, 1985), 251. Functional Properties of Food Components: Food Science and Technology, a series of monographs. (New York:McGraw-Hill, 198 ). Foundations of Food Science. J Cram, and G. When heated in fluid, the granules swell, the outer membraneruptures, and the result is a viscous, colloidal solution containingamylose and amylopectin, both of which are easily digested by humans.Native starch is always found with non-carbohydrate components such asphosphoric acid, which are attached in various bonding forms. Unfortunately, humans have a tendency to over-consume theseproducts. This compound serves as a reserve store of energy.The structure and size of glycogen reflects its function. This fatty acidhas a melting point of 58oC; thus, fats containing a large proportion ofthis fatty acid are solid at room temperature. As a result ofsome groundbreaking research by a group of scientists at Berkeley, themechanism of photosynthesis was elucidated. Today, the photosyntheticpathway is generally referred to as the Calvin-Benson cycle after thescientists who made this discovery. The structure of a representative amino acid, leucine, is givenbelow: CH3-CH(CH3)-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH Of the 21 amino acids, eight are essential for human nutrition. Lundberg, Autoxidation and Antioxidant (New York: John Wileyand Sons, 1961). The secondary structure involves folding of theprimary structure and is driven by hydrogen bonds that form between theamide nitrogen group and oxygen of the carbonyl group in the constituentamino acids. Unlike carbohydrates and lipids, proteins contain nitrogen along withcarbon, oxygen, sulfur and in some cases phosphorus, iron, copper,manganese and other metals. The formula for acommon saturated fatty acid, myristic acid, is given below. Inaddition to the effect of heat, proteins can be denatured by surfaceforces, as demonstrated by the solidification of cream when it is whipped. Theseeight amino acids - tryptophan, methionine, lysine, threonine, leucine,isoleucine, phenylalanine and valine - must be obtained from food as humanscannot synthesize them at a rate to meet the demands of their metabolism.The relative amounts of these amino acids and their availability determinethe nutritional quality of a given protein. Fundamentals of Food Chemistry. In this case, the excess is excreted, collects in the body asgallstones, or accumulates in the arteries, where it causes narrowing ofthe vessel, a condition known as arteriosclerosis. As already mentioned, plants and animals are able to synthesizelipids from the products of carbohydrate metabolism. H. The oils and fats that are used in cooking are classified as mixturesof triglycerides, or triesters of glycerol. K. As aresult of the abundance of different food types, infinite combinations andvarieties are available, and a typical plate displays an assortment offlavors, textures and colors. Hydrogenation converts liquid fats into plastic fats thatare then used in the production of synthetic margarines and shortenings. H. CH3(CH2)12CO2H The vegetable oils and fats can be divided into three groups,depending on their fatty acid composition. Autoxidation and Antioxidant. Humans, as do all animals, lackthe apparatus to convert carbon dioxide into a useful and energeticallyrich organic substrate. Consuming food ispleasurable and culturally significant, as exemplified by the holiday mealsat Christmas, Hanukah, and the celebrations at wedding receptions. O. The building blocks of proteins are some 21different amino acids, which are joined together by peptide bonds to form apolymer. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1985.Purves, W. This paper has briefly explored some of the properties ofcarbohydrates, lipids and proteins that directly, or indirectly, relate totheir organic chemistry. D. Proteins, as macromolecules, have several levels of structuralorganization. [2] S. Accordingly, those that arebroken down into two molecules of monosaccharides are called disaccharides,into three, trisaccharides, between two and 1 , oligosaccharides, and morethan 1 , polysaccharides. BibliographyDeMan, J. H., J. During this metabolism, theresulting products are transformed into other carbohydrates, fats and someof the building blocks of proteins. They include the triglycerides, phospholipids, glycolipids,waxes, terpenes, steroids and prostoglandins. Purves and others, Life: The Science of Biology, 4th ed.(Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 1995), 175. The triglycerides are composed of saturatedand unsaturated fatty acids that are generally unbranched and contain aneven number of carbon molecules, usually between 14 and 22. Carbon exists as inorganic and organic forms. In cooking, heat is considered the primary cause of proteindenaturation. For a given oilor fat, the ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids determines itsfluidity. Freeman,1981), 8. [8] I. Hawthorn, Foundations of Food Science (New York: W. No aspect of human chemistry or biology is untouched byproteins; thus, as would be expected, proteins are structurally highlydiverse. It is a largemolecule, highly branched and impermeable to the cell wall; thus, theglucose released by glycogen hydrolysis immediately serves the cell inwhich the glycogen is stored and then, as a now smaller and permeablemolecule, can travel to any site in the body that requires energy. Freeman, 1981.Lundberg, W. Cholesterol is extremely common and is classified as a zoo-sterol as it is animal in origin. Albumins such as egg whites aresoluble in salt-free water. Life: The Science of Biology, 4th ed. An enormous amount of time and energy is spent preparing and eatingthe food that sustains and maintains human health. Saturated fatty acids have a much higher melting point thanunsaturated fatty acids, which contain a double bond. Proteins readily denature, that is, undergo a major change instructure that does not involve alterations in the primary amino acidsequence. In the West, most proteinsare obtained from animals. D. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 1995.Werner Heimann, I. deMan, Principles of Food Chemistry, 2d ed. B. Plantsuse the green pigment chlorophyll to trap the energy of sunlight, and useit to combine water and carbon dioxide into a simple, energy richcarbohydrate as shown below: 6CO2 + 6H2O + Sunlight = C6H12 6 + O2 Once the initial conversion is accomplished, the plant contains allthe materials and energy necessary for the chemosynthesis of the morefamiliar food groups, that is the more complex carbohydrates, lipids andproteins. Sucrose and maltose are examples of disaccharidesthat break down into two molecules of glucose. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 199 .Graham Solomons, T. Craig Heller. To humans, food and the eating experience aremuch more than just acquiring the energy for the growth and maintenance ofbones, soft tissue, protoplasmic substances and hormones. Meat proteins denature between 57oC and 75oC, and this isaccompanied by changes in texture, water-holding capacity and shrinkage. New York: W. Werner Heimann, Fundamentals of Food Chemistry (Westport, CT:Ellis Horwood Limited, 198 ). Humans are very fragile andtotally dependent on plants for their ability to generate the organiccarbon that is required for the persistance of life. Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry, 2d ed. In this paper,aspects of the relationship between organic chemistry and the three majorfood groups - carbohydrates, lipids and proteins - are explored. Lipids have multiple functions inhumans; in addition to their role as a source of energy, fats are used ingrowth and maintenance of body structure. In contrast to cellulose, glucose deposited in cells asstarch can be brought back into the metabolism of an animal cell with thehelp of enzymes known as amylases. Oils are always liquid at roomtemperature and fats are solid. The unsaturated double bonds of some fatty acids represent a sitewhich may, among other things, react with oxygen. Westport, CT: Ellis Horwood Limited, 198 .----------------------- [1] T. Another significant polysaccharide in the human diet is cellulose,the main component of plant fibers and cell walls. Every component of human nutrition,except minerals and water, consists of organic carbon molecules bonded insimple or complex arrays with other substances.[2] So where does organiccarbon come from? [6] W. This form of carbon is energeticallyimpotent and totally useless to animals. In identifying carbon as the central molecule inhuman nutrition, a startling fact has been revealed, one that humans, as aspecies, should consider very seriously. Orians, and H. Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds.[1] Carboncompounds are central to the existence of every life form on earth. The mostabundant inorganic form is gaseous carbon dioxide that is excreted as anend product of organismal respiration. [4] J. Factors thatinfluence the rate of rancidity and flavor reversion include the degree ofunsaturation of the lipid, the presence or absence of antioxidants, lightexposure and the storage temperature.[7] A commercially important property of fats is that they can behydrogenated. Although no nutritional benefit can bereaped from this substance, it plays a crucial role as dietary fiber and inthe maintenance of digestive health. Hammond. Theymake up the muscles of animals and human, the stems and leaves of plants,the molecules that transfer genetic information, protective clothing,hydrocarbons that breakdown to provide the energy for transport, andperhaps most important the food products for nutrition. This breakdown is achievedby a process known as hydrolysis, and is driven by exposure to a weak acidas follows: 1 mole of maltose + H2O and H+ = 2 moles of glucose Starch, glycogen and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides andpolymers of glucose, that is, upon hydrolysis they yield numerous moleculesof glucose. In contrast, the scleroproteins, such as thecollagen of muscle fibers, are insoluble in water or neutral solvents. K., G. S. H. (New York: VanNostrand Reinhold, 199 ). Within the lipids, the sterols or steroids represent a chemically andbiologically significant set of compounds, which is a group that includescholesterol. Where the majority ofcarbohydrates are soluble in an aqueous, or water-based solution, lipidsare completely insoluble. The last major food group in human nutrition is the proteins thatpredominate in both animal and plant products. This process, known asautoxidation can render the oil or fat inedible and is often described asrancidity. The exact value is correlated with economic status: for peopleliving in poverty, it can be as high as 9 percent, as compared toapproximately 5 percent in wealthier communities.[4] In animals, themajority of carbohydrates are not deposited in a native form after theiringestion, but after digestion and absorption they are metabolized as animmediate and preferred source of energy. The simplest carbohydrates are called monosaccharides because theycannot be broken down into smaller sugar units. This involves the addition of hydrogen at the double bonds inthe acyl groups. Pine, and others, Organic Chemistry, 4th ed. Seed oils such as sunflower oil,corn oil, safflower oil, and olive oil mainly contain unsaturated fattyacids with 16-18 carbon atoms. Interestingly, the way in which inorganic carbon is converted orassimilated remained a mystery until after World War II. It is contained in butter, egg yolks andliver oils. The tertiary and quaternary structures are dictated by morefolding that is driven by hydrogen bonds, disulphide bridges, hydrophobicinteractions and VanderWaals forces. One of the products formed during the metabolism of starch is thepolysaccharide glycogen. Because carbohydrates are easily andimmediately metabolized, foods containing high amounts of them are oftenused as snack foods and energy bars for athletes. Proteins are extremely complex molecules and are classified based ontheir solubility in different solvents. Plants are the only organisms that can achieve this conversionthrough their unique ability to transform atmospheric carbon dioxide intosimple carbohydrates (sugars and starch) by a process known asphotosynthesis.[3] To date, this mechanism represents the only known way inwhich organic carbon can be generated from inorganic carbon dioxide. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1961.Pine, S. Organic Chemistry, 4th ed. Rapeseed and mustard oil mainly contain thefatty acid erucic acid, and the vegetable fats such as palm kernel andcoconut oil contain large quantities of medium- and short-chain saturatedfatty acids. W. Hendrickson, D. Eggs represent one of thehighest quality proteins available in the human diet. Carbohydrates make up the greatest percentage of most humandiets. Starch is the most important final product of photosynthesis.It occurs as tiny granules, which have a characteristic size and shapedepending on the plant from which the granule is obtained. New York: McGraw-Hill, 198 .Pomeranz, Y. [5] J. In less developed nations, plant proteins areemphasized, a circumstance again driven by economics. O. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1986.Hawthorn, J. Graham Solomons, Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry, 2d ed.(New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1986). In fact, the term lipid is used as a catchall forsubstances that are soluble in nonpolar organic solvents such aschloroform.[5] Estimating the actual percentage of lipid in the human dietis hard because the content in specific foods is highly variable, cookingmay add or remove lipids, and individuals may display preferences, such asbuttering their vegetables at the table. What is so surprising is the chemical simplicity underlying theenormous diversity of food types. Potatoes, cornand rice are commercially important sources of starch. There are several types of rancidity.[6] Exposure of lard toair, or enzymes known as lipogenases, induce chemical changes that resultsin a sweet, unpleasant smell and flavor that becomes progressively worse.The smell is associated with the formation of methyl ketones, as summarizedin the formula below: ( ( ( ( R-CH2-CH2-CH2-CO-SCoA = R-CH2-CO-CH2-CO-SCoA + H2O = R-CH2-CO-CH3-CO2-CoASH (methylketone)Flavor reversion develops in oils containing large amounts of the fattyacid linolenic acid and manifests as an unpleasant flavor. [7] Y. Unlike carbohydrates andproteins, lipids have no common structural thread except that they arenitrogen-free.
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