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PARENTS' ROLE IN CHILD'S SOCIALIZATION.
Term Paper ID:23784
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Impact of parents' cultural beliefs on child's personal & social development in various cultures. Religion, language, work, education, economics, family relations.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Impact of parents' cultural beliefs on child's personal & social development in various cultures. Religion, language, work, education, economics, family relations.
Paper Introduction:
Parents' cultural belief systems have definite consequences for children's development. Parents are the main agents of socialization for their children during the period of their lives when they are most susceptible to influence. Because culture is a pervasive aspect of parental personality, cultural belief systems play a major role in the socialization process.
Culture is the shared meanings that people in a society give to important life events. These events include birth, death, commerce, mating, protection from hunger and bad weather, etc. Thus every aspect of human life and behavior is influenced by culture: "In a sense, to understand culture is to understand learned behavior" (Slonim, 1991, p. 5). Moreover, specific cultural value systems are transmitted from one generation to another.
Text of the Paper:
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Liebes, T. Punctuality is valued in American culture and, to aneven greater extent, in German, Swiss, and Scandinavian cultures. 8). New York: The Guilford Press. Adults who hold middle-class professional jobsassume that, on reaching adulthood, their children will hold similarpositions. Youniss, J. Levy, R. 5). New York: The Falmer Press. 356-357). Thus parental belief systems are a critical area of socialresearch. (1996). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates. Parents exert a strong degree of authority over theirchildren and corporal punishment is used when deemed necessary. For instance, among Hindu and certain Middle Easternfamilies, parents are instrumental in arranging marriages for their adultchildren. Kohnstamm, Halverson,Jr., Havill, and Mervielde (1996) studied free descriptions of parents'child personality characteristics in different languages and cultures andfound the existence of both universal and culturally specific outcomes.About 7 -8 percent of the characteristics mentioned by a culturallydiverse sample of parents could be categorized in Big-Five dimensions,namely (I) Extroversion, (II) Agreeableness, (III) Conscientiousness, (IV)Emotional Stability/Instability, and (V) Intellect, Culture, or Openness toExperience. Television is used inhouseholds either as background or as object of focal attention. . (1992). Forinstance, parents use television to warn their children against certainexternal influences. Incontrast, Asian cultures value the past over the future, which explains whyancestor worship is common. Typical of agrarian societies, the Mayan culture engages in a highlevel of sex role stereotyping. 73-86. The Eastwoodmothers expressed the importance of economic and emotional independence,well-being, and good personal relationships for their children. The tradeoff of the dual-worker lower-class status of the Secoya families is the requirement of greater parentalinvolvement in childrearing in contrast to middle-class couples who oftenhave the resources to hire household help (Hughes, Jr. Physical or moralincompetency is attributed to failure of the family to educate the child. Adultsin the home read materials in Spanish and view Spanish language televisionstations. Extended families are the norm, with theaverage compound consisting of three generations. The influence that parents exert over their offspring does not endwith childhood. . Counselors of theseyouths believe that the problem lies in their inability to deal with racialand language conflicts in the schools. Another source of the stress that the Secoya parents placeon discipline in their children may stem from their religious background, asignificant portion of the Mexican American population being Catholic:"Traditionally, children raised in a Catholic family were taught thatparental authority was absolute" (Slonim, 1991, p. The socioeconomic level of adults influencesthese expectations. Mayan parents take great care to protect their children fromthese types of dangers (Gaskins, 1996, p. Even when their children learned English, the parents of theSecoya expected their children to maintain their Spanish language. Although children attend school for at leasta few years to attain basic literacy, their presence is too critical in thevillage for them to become serious about educational matters. Only a few of the households in either cultureincluded extended family members. The Cholos were viewed asantisocial, rebellious elements in the community. . Slonim (1991) asserts that among the development stages, infancy isof particular importance, "The first few years of life are crucial to thedevelopment of values, attitudes, and the control of other environmentalfactors which shape personality" (p. (1996). 83-12 . Where self and its relation to thesupernatural is straightforward as in Piri, child development occurs on anatural basis, but where the relationship between self and the supernaturalis complex, childrearing is highly structured. Technical culturallearning is distinguished from "regulatory" cultural learning in which theability of children to create nuisance and disharmony is suppressed. Mayanparents assume the responsibility for both technical and regulatorycultural learning for their children. and Kim, M. In Harry McGurk (Ed.) Childhood Social Development,pp. Research by New and Richman (1996) indicates the differences inbeliefs and child care practices among mothers in Italy and the UnitedStates. 1 15). One of the responsibilities given to the Secoya children is to runerrands, which puts them in early contact with the adult world outside theschool environment. InSara Harkness and Charles Super (Eds.) Parents' Cultural Belief Systems,pp. In PatriciaGreenfield and Rodney Cocking (Eds.) Cross-Cultural Roots of MinorityChild Development, pp. Religious life in Bhaktapur is central to itsorganization, with more than 2 different deities representative of someaspect of personal and community life. 85). The answer depends on the question.In Sara Harkness and Charles Super (Eds.) Parents' Cultural BeliefSystems, pp. (1994). These stagesrange from "very little babies" to "beginning-to-start-understandingchildren" to "becoming adult children" (Gaskins 1996). and Perry-Jenkins,1996, p. 6). Task performanceat such an early stage is almost unthinkable in American culture. Hughes, Jr. The study was undertaken in a communitycovering approximately ten blocks (pseudonamed Secoya) in an unincorporatedgeographic area in a San Francisco Bay Area county. 1 14). Liebes (1992) contends that the pervasive influence of television inmost households leads to a combination of informal learning on the part ofparent, child, and media. Whenviewing television with their children, parents often engage inconversations with their children concerning program content. 73). Parent and peer relations in the emergence ofcultural competence. Crossing culturalborders. Regardless of their immigration status, the parents of the Secoyaexhibited a strong desire to have their children maintain Spanish-speakingcultural practices. A study by Delgado-Gaitan and Trueba (1991) describes theconsequences of Mexican American immigrant parents' cultural belief systemson their children's development. Such adegree of autonomy is unheard of at such a young age in American culture.However, the Mayans realize that the economic survival of the familyinvolves instilling the children with a high level of responsibility at anearly age. The residents ofSecoya tend to make a distinction between the recent immigrants and theMexican American citizens: "The economic distinctions were apparent indress, home, employment, and language" (Delgado-Gaitan and Trueba, 1991, p.46). New York: The Guilford Press. The children learn by trial and error, with minimalprompting from adults. Youniss (1992)contends that this infatuation with change causes American parents toemphasize the development of social skills in their children which allowfor rapid adaptation. Parents observed that they wantedtheir children to grow up well-mannered and to obey adult instruction, evento the point of refraining from expressing contrary opinions to adults(Delgado-Gaitan and Trueba, 1991; Delgado-Gaitan, 1994). withrespect for authority and conformity to external and imposed rules"(Delgado-Gaitan and Trueba, 1991, p. Subjects were drawn from Civita Fantera, a small town north ofRome and Eastwood, a suburban community in Massachusetts. TheItalian mothers were more concerned about family, financial security, andgood health. Some mothers, wherever possible, encourage their children to play becauseit temporarily relieves them of the burden of their care. Parentalgoals for their children also varied according to culture. 17 ). Adult intervention in the form of correctingegregious errors is sanctioned but, in general, interference isdiscouraged: "In a learning situation--as opposed to a simple directcommand--to tell a child what to do . Generally, the Secoya families believed thatimparting correct values to their children was the most important functionof the family, and that this function was being undermined by environmentalfactors such as schools and peer pressure. Moreover, specific cultural value systems are transmitted from onegeneration to another. In America, play is considered the work of the child, and isencouraged to support its developmental processes, but in Mayan cultureplay is rarely encouraged. . Most of the businessesin the community reflect the immigrant population's Spanish language andculture. Precepts and practices: researching identityformation among Indian Hindu adolescents in the United States. Maccoby, E. In the poorer households, the families cannot afford theluxury of having children use time for play that could be put to moreproductive means. 178). 13). Nationwide, annual summer camps are held wherechildren from fourth grade through high school participate in secular andreligious activities aimed at instilling Hindu values. For example, children raised in agricultural societiesare expected to contribute to the family's future wealth and well-beingthrough farming activities. Research by Harkness et al. In urban areas withlarge Indian populations, immigrant families organize Hindu temples andethnic associations where their children can learn about their religiousand cultural heritage. et al. DevelopmentalPsychology, pp. (1996)confirms that, for middle class parents, the family pediatrician is animportant source of root metaphors and cultural models of childdevelopment. (1996). Eastwood infants alternated between intenseinteraction in mother-child dyads or isolation. The child's gender determines the choiceof vocation. At this age they are assigned simple tasks andembark on becoming productive members of the household. In Sara Harkness andCharles Super (Eds.) Parents' Cultural Belief Systems, pp. and Trueba, H. Because culture is a pervasive aspect ofparental personality, cultural belief systems play a major role in thesocialization process. Parents' free descriptions of child characteristics. Lower-class parents in urbansocieties tend to encourage less creativity and playfulness in theirchildren, and are more controlling than their middle-class counterparts,who reinforce the "American dream" ideals of self-support and autonomy(Hughes, Jr. 71-86. New, R. Observance of such practices, e.g., religious holidaysand ceremonies, helps to preserve the language bond of the entirecommunity. Liebes (1992) found that television, particularly thenightly news, is used by parents to reinforce their own political beliefsand to aid in the political socialization of their children. Safety as an overriding concern of toddlerdevelopment is also characteristic of the desert-dwelling Bedouins: "Theenvironmental demands of a culture can affect childrearing practices"(Slonim, 1991, p. In many societies, superstitions, myths, and folklore are acceptedpractices connected with childrearing and child development. In more well-to-do households, play is merely tolerated. Gaskins, S. The Mayan parental form of socialization occurs on a gradual,continuous basis. Middle Eastern cultures are indifferent to thefuture, believing that this realm is beyond comprehension to humans. In the Eastwood homes the mother wasconsidered the primary caregiver, even when siblings or other familymembers were present. Ask the doctor. Slonim, M. 1 6-1 17. Likewise, parental religious belief exerts an influence on childdevelopment, when such belief becomes an integral part of childrearingpractices. These events include birth, death, commerce,mating, protection from hunger and bad weather, etc. . (1991). . Once Mayan children are between the ages ofabout 2 and 4, they reach the stage of becoming "beginning-to-start-understanding" children. (1996). In preparation for what many Secoya parents believe will be workingclass jobs for their children, respect for authority and conformity withrules and regulations are stressed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.----------------------- 3 Hinduism, which is a religion of acts andpractices, calls for parents to emphasize activities such as daily prayer,reading Hindu scriptures, singing sacred songs, adhering to dietarypractices, or attending temple services. Levy's (1996) study of differences inparental ideas in the Polynesian village of Piri and Bhaktapur, a city inNepal, found that parents' cultural beliefs in the concept of self were anunderlying foundation in childrearing practices. self-direction and the ability to manipulateinterpersonal relations, ideas, and symbols; working class jobs . 35 ). References Delgado-Gaitan, C. The worst fear of parents in the Secoya was that their children wouldleave the traditional ways and become connected with a group of Hispanicyouths who identified themselves as Cholos. As the childgrows older it learns not only from its parents but also from its extendedfamily and from respected instructors (e.g., gurus). All but the youngest children assist with thehousehold and farming chores. Culture is the shared meanings that people in a society give toimportant life events. Maccoby (1992)underscores the importance of parental authority and strong generationalboundaries in family relationships; clear boundaries prevent the familyfrom becoming dysfunctional, and foster greater competence in children (p.1 15). In America, regulatory training isthe shared responsibility of school, home, and church. 76). However,Mayan children are not pressured into working, and are generally allowed toproceed at their own pace and level of ability to focus. is intrusive and taken as a signof unjustified adult mood-driven irritability and impatience" (Levy, 1996,p. The cultural psychological concepts that parents hold also have aneffect on child development. In modern Japan, theconcept of infant spiritual independence still holds, based on the ancientbelief that babies are spiritually pure, and superior to adults. In contrast, in the CivitaFantera homes, infants were rarely alone with their mothers; the infantsroutinely interacted with various individuals in the household. Traditions related to time orientation are also passed along fromparent to child. (1996, April). LatinAmerican cultures are not inordinately concerned about time. The means which parents use to transmit their cultural belief systemsto their children are many and varied. (1995). BecauseMayan village life is fraught with environmental hazards in home and yard,once the infant becomes mobile, the bulk of interaction with the parentoccurs for the purpose of maintaining safety. . 175-176). Although recreational reading for adults was limited due to thedemands of work and family responsibilities, some adults in the study readbooks in Spanish to their children as a form of family entertainment. . New York:Garland. Socializing young children in Mexican-American families: An intergenerational perspective. 351). Despite the various differences in parental styles due to culturaldifferences, researchers have found that distinct similarities exist inparent-child relationships regardless of culture. Despite thepainstaking efforts of their parents, Miller (1995) found that Hinduadolescents do not exhibit a high degree of consensus on important culturalissues such as cultural identity, dating, and standard of dress: "In theirdaily lives, they are presented with 'precepts' from both their Hinduheritage and from 'mainstream' U.S. 175-182. 45). This training begins with such elementary tasks as crawling,standing, walking, talking, toilet training, and eating. Parents are the main agents of socialization fortheir children during the period of their lives when they are mostsusceptible to influence. Kohnstamm, Halverson, Jr., Havill, and Mervielde(1996) note a similar degree of pampering on the part of Japanese motherstoward their infants, based on the belief that such attentivenessfacilitates the child's social and language development (p. Although children are often rewarded forthe responsibilities they assume, they learn the serious nature of work atan early age. Most fatherswould rather see their children engaged in productive activities than inplay. culture" (Miller, 1995, p. Parentswho exhibit a weak degree of authority are regarded with low esteem by thecommunity. Parents from working class backgrounds often foster skills intheir own children that will make them suitable for working class jobs.Thus children are taught the types of behavior and personal attributesappropriate to certain work environments: "Middle-class professional jobsare assoicated with . Islamic parents will stress the control of bodily appetites(e.g., abstinence from pork and alcohol) and the adherence to a defined setof religious law. 385-4 4. Thus mostJapanese mothers describe their infants as "good" babies, and pamper themexcessively (Shwalb, Shwalb, and Shoji, 1996, p. In Sara Harkness and CharlesSuper (Eds.) Parents' Cultural Belief Systems, pp. Parents inagricultural societies tend to emphasize a high degree of independence intheir children because this trait is well-suited to the hard, physicallabor of farming. By the age of 6or 7, children are expected to assume responsibilities around the house andto carry out tasks as instructed. As Slonim (1991) asserts, "[Religious ideologies] affect one'svalues, one's method of social control (shame versus guilt), diet,attitudes toward health and illness, relationships with people and with theenvironment, family life cycle phases, occupational choices, politics,education, celebrations, even time orientation" (p. 345-363. Mostchildren stop attending school after the sixth grade. One area where Mayan parental power grows lax concernsdecisionmaking. Parents' cultural belief systems have definite consequences forchildren's development. Differences in attitude toward childhood playare based on the socioeconomic status of the Mayan household and the genderof the parent. Whereas the recent immigrants are sometimes undocumented andrelegated to menial employment, many of the Mexican Americans aresufficiently acculturated to have attained a proficiency in the Englishlanguage and thus qualified for better paying jobs. InJacqueline Goodnow, Peggy Miller, and Frank Kessel (Eds.) CulturalPractices as Contexts for Development, pp. The accepted role for females is childrearing and themaintenance of the household. The parents, ill-equipped toameliorate these problems, blame the schools for being too liberal: "Ifchildren faced problems in school because of their dress and their peer-group behavior, parents found it increasingly difficult to contend withtheir children's changing dynamics in the family" (Delgado-Gaitan andTrueba, 1991, p. It continues throughout adolescence and even intoadulthood. and Perry-Jenkins, M. Although parents' cultural belief systems are not the soledeterminants of personality development in children (e.g., heredity andenvironment play important roles), culture does exert a major impact onchildren's learned behaviors. Even in Americanculture, parental influence is long-lived due to the tendency of childrento build new relationships based in part on the quality of previousinteraction with parents (Maccoby, 1992, p. Delgado-Gaitan, C. In American culture, theschool system is responsible for technical learning, thus American childrenare not exposed to this type of educational experience until they reachschool age, generally at about five or six years old. 129). (1996). Children who areraised in environments where adults attribute events or characteristics tosupernatural causes or who seek assistance from the supernatural in solvingproblems, tend to have more faith in such spiritual phenomena than childrenraised in more temporal environments. Clearly, religion is closelyinterrelated with culture. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 139). 11-12). In cultures where extended families are the norm, parentscontinue to influence their offspring even after they themselves becomeparents. The Piri emphasis on the natural development of the child stems fromthe culture's limited use of the supernatural for social purposes. 349). In Sara Harkness and Charles Super(Eds.) Parents' Cultural Belief Systems, pp. The people of Piri take alibertarian attitude toward their children's development, insisting thattheir young will learn most things on their own, through the gradualprocess of maturation. Social classissues in family life education. Children are found in abundance in the Mayan culture, and areregarded as economic blessings because of their future potential tocontribute to the family. "(Levy, 1996, p. Family life revolvesaround the growing of corn, men farm the crop and women process it,although some men seek temporary work to supplement the family income. Theseethnotheories and beliefs guide the parent and become part of the worldviewthat is passed along to children. All infants inthe sample resided in nuclear families, with fathers being the primarysources of family income. (1992, November). Teachers College Record, pp. Thus every aspect ofhuman life and behavior is influenced by culture: "In a sense, tounderstand culture is to understand learned behavior" (Slonim, 1991, p. 27-55. A study of Hindu immigrants to the United States indicates thatparents transmit their traditional cultural beliefs to their children evenwhen presented with contrasting social environments. How Mayan parental theories come into play. Maternal beliefs and infant carepractices in Italy and the United States. Harkness, S. New York:The Guilford Press. 169-191. and Richman, A. Once children reach a stage of solid understanding ofrules, generally between the ages of 6 and 8, they are authorized to makelife-altering decisions such as whether to continue school, whether to takemedicine, and how to spend money (Gaskins, 1996, pp. Television, parents, and the politicalsocialization of children. And in certain Asian cultures, parental influence may continuelong after the parents are dead, via ancestor worship. (1992, Fall). Further, even in cases where television is notpresent in the home, its absence is the result of an "ongoing ideologicalbattle" among family members (Liebes, 1992, p. Shwalb, D., Shwalb, B., and Shoji, J. In SaraHarkness and Charles Super (Eds.) Parents' Cultural Belief Systems, pp. Sigel and Kim (1996) describe a cultural common sense that adultsdevelop, in terms of childrearing, religion, politics, etc. For example,in Mayan culture, children are thought to be particularly susceptible toevil spirits that dwell in jungles or inhabit the bodies of demon-possessedindividuals. Essential contrasts. Parents use teaching behaviors(actions and activities) that include reading books, exerting control overtelevision viewing, and engaging in conversations (Sigel and Kim, 1996, p.89). 131-148. Recognizing the strong presence of the Hispanic community in thisarea (at least 75 percent), Secoya is often referred to as "Little Mexico." The Secoya is a mixture of Hispanic nationalities, including Mexican,Mexican American, Salvadorian, Chileno, and Puerto Rican. NewYork: The Guilford Press. Gaskins' (1996) study of children in the Mayan culture confirms theinfluence of cultural beliefs about what the child should become on thechild's development. The Mayans recognizean informal series of developmental stages in childrearing. The assumption of chores by Mayan children is what Slonim (1991)describes as "technical" cultural learning. Males are the traditional breadwinners. As Gaskins (1996) puts it,"There is little attention paid to how infants spend their time as long asthey are safe" (p. By studying these differences,sociologists can learn more about how adults form their own culturalbeliefs. New York: The Guilford Press. . As Maccoby (1992) notes, "At every stage of life, relationshipsinvolve coregulation, and individuals never graduate to being free of theregulatory requirements of intimate others unless they become socialisolates" (p. Thus achild's culture can have an important effect on its concept of time, timebeing more highly significant in some cultures than in others (Slonim,1991, pp. and Perry-Jenkins, 1996, pp. Thus the psychological foundationof the contrasting methods of child development between the Piri andBhaktapur cultures is clear. In general, the childrearing practices of parents focus on the futureexpectations that parents hold for their children (Delgado-Gaitan andTrueba, 1991; Gaskins, 1996). New York: TheGuilford Press. The enduring influence of parents varies depending onthe culture involved. Miller, B. The attitude of the Italian mothers appears to be moreclosely related to those of the parents of the Secoya than to the valuesand belief systems held by middle class suburban American parents. American culture tends to put a premium on time.Concomitant with this orientation is a tendency to devalue the past and itstraditions in favor of the future and perpetual change. Children receive strong messages to keep work and playseparate, to avoid negligence. Catholic parents believe themselves responsible fortheir children's spiritual salvation and thus tend to be more strictdisciplinarians than their Protestant counterparts, who emphasize personalsalvation and individualism. 17 ). Children, culture, and ethnicity. 289-31 . New York:The Guilford Press. In Sara Harkness and CharlesSuper (Eds.) Parents' Cultural Belief Systems, pp. Sigel, I. Village families live incompounds typically composed of one or two crude houses surrounded by areasfor gardens and small livestock. For example,parents who believe in Confucianism, Buddhism, or Taoism are likely toteach their children the importance of conformity, harmony, and the controlof emotions. Kohnstamm, G., Halverson, Jr., C., Havill, H., and Mervielde, I.(1996). CertainNative American cultures have no concept of time whatsoever. The Mayans are especiallyindulgent with their infants; they are nursed and cared for on demandthroughout the day and night: "Mayan caregivers pay a great deal ofattention and are sensitive to the young baby's rhythms and needs"(Gaskins, 1996, p. Family Relations, pp. Japanese mothers'ideas about infants and temperament. Culture contributes to distinct differences in parental goals andattitudes regarding childrearing practices. 13). .self is something that needs to be thought, talked and, perhaps, readabout, that it is problematic--not a simple given in the world . 55-86. (1991). 123-142. (1996). The role of parents in thesocialization of children: An historical overview. Pirirarely ask the question "Who am I?" In contrast, the concept of theidentity of self preoccupies the mind of the average Bhaktapurian: " . In contrast to the Piri natives, the inhabitants of Bhaktapur areconstantly involved in imparting rules and techniques for their children'sdevelopment. The subjects of Gaskins' study live in a traditionalremote village of about 8 inhabitants.
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