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BIOLOGY & GENDER.
Term Paper ID:23796
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Essay Subject:
Impact of physical differences on male & female behavior & identity, compared to sociological influences.... More...
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10 Pages / 2250 Words
4 sources, 29 Citations,
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Paper Abstract:
Impact of physical differences on male & female behavior & identity, compared to sociological influences.
Paper Introduction:
The Influence of Biologic Differences on Gender Behavior
The following paper attempts to elucidate, integrate, and discuss recent research on the influence of biologic differences between males and females on gender behavior. The purpose of such discussion is to search for a more objective understanding of gender behavior apart from myths and stereotypes.
The issue of gender seems to go far beyond the processes whereby one acquires a sense of maleness or femaleness. Society ascribes a set of behaviors that are considered normal and appropriate for one’s particular sex. These normative standards are labeled gender roles or sex roles. Being assigned a gender role means one must conform to certain assumptions about how to behave. For example, men in this society are expected to act independently and aggressively, while women are supposed to be dep
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Instead of the"rough and tumble" play that often characterizes parents' play with malechildren, little girls are frequently handled very delicately in the courseof quiet play. From thispoint of view, a man who chooses to stay at home and provide child care isseen as rejecting masculine traits and interests. According to some research, the identification of gender differencesis controversial because of the threat of discrimination and the fear that,when differences are noted, women will be found inferior because they arecompared with a normative standard that is male by design. 29). The issue of gender seems to go far beyond the processes whereby oneacquires a sense of maleness or femaleness. Since individual behavior results from social learning, keepingan open mind to the possibility of multiple arrangements, rather than justa two-category system, may be difficult or impossible. When an individual's feelings, talents, and interests coincide withthe gender role that is associated with the sex of assignment, suchidentity is not a disruption. Becausechildren are sensitive to parental approval or disapproval, they usuallydevelop toy preferences consistent with their parents' gender roleexpectations. Some, however, challenge this depiction of early humans, arguing that,in the earliest societies, women were at least equally provident asgatherers. However, as research and real life seem toindicate, this is not always the case. 239). Men and women have much in common: the same embryonal origins; thesame basic structure and function; and even the same hormones, although indifferent proportions (Headapohl, 1993, p. In the search for information to illustrate how this interactionmanifests itself in most societies, the division of labor between the sexesis an important area to consider. 4. They also agree that thebrain may become masculinized or feminized as a result of exposure to sexhormones and thus lead to masculine or feminine behavior, temperament, orattitudes (Headapohl, 1993, p. Females have superior verbal skills, beginning at about age 12. For example, inAmerican society, parents teach each child how to answer the basicquestion, "Are you a little boy or a girl?" by quickly correcting any"mistakes" made, e.g., "No, Johnny, you can't be a little girl. Even feminists are not in agreement about the differencesbetween men and women (Headapohl, 1993, p. The effect of this resulting pattern of brain organization wasstudied and correlated to a tendency toward male typical behavior infemales or a loss of female typical traits. 686). (1993). 7 ). (1994). This evidence makes onewonder if it is truly "in the genes" and if women instinctively seek rolesof nurturing and men roles of power. 3 ). 686). This was described as a non-conformity to gender stereotypedbehavior and preferences. 699). 2. E.O. Males excel in visual-spatial ability from adolescence onward. Tiefer and Kring (1995)contend that, when biologic sex is assigned at birth by either the presenceor absence of a penis, parents assume without examination that all theother biologic and physiologic variables are perfectly consistent.Thereby, the spectrum of physical indicators present are condensed into asimple classification of "boy" or "girl" as a result of social and culturalsanctions. However, sociobiologists do not claimthat behavior is entirely predetermined by chromosomal sex. (1995). They maintain thatchromosomes determine reproductive development and function and other sex-specific physical and physiologic differences. To make this picture even more interesting, research efforts toisolate the many biological factors that influence a person's genderidentity have resulted in the identification of six biological categories,or levels: chromosomal sex, gonadal sex, hormonal sex, sex of the internalreproductive structures, sex of the external genitals, and sexdifferentiation of the brain (Tiefer & Kring, 1995, p. The origins of infantile sexuality andpsychological gender. They expanded upon previous findings thatcorrelated testosterone concentrations in the fetal brain and gender roleidentity (Geschwind and Galaburda, 1987, as cited in Casey et al, 1995, p.239). Cross-culturally, almost all societies have division of labor bygender, assigning women to the roles of child care and householdmaintenance and excluding them from economic independence, social status,and political power (Headapohl, 1993, p. For example, men in this society are expected to actindependently and aggressively, while women are supposed to be dependentand submissive. This division of labor as described inearly hunter/gatherer societies resulted in male dominance. Headapohl (1993) and others contend thatthe biologic fact that women bear and nurse children may have had aprofound effect on the division of labor. Most contemporary theoristsembrace an interactional model, in which gender identity is seen as aresult of a complex interplay of biology and social learning factors. At puberty,hormone-mediated physical changes define female and male body structure,muscle and fat distribution, and hormonal balance by adulthood (Scott &LaDou, 199 , as cited in Headapohl, 1993, p. Boys are told that "bigboys don't cry". 698). Sex refers to the biologic differencesbetween male and female, reflecting the chromosomal make-up of theindividual (Headapohl, 1993, p. As the twigis bent: The biology and socialization of gender roles in women. Conversely, women havetraditionally been viewed as nonassertive, illogical, emotional,subordinate, warm, and nurturing. Tiefer, L., & Kring, B. People may interpret the same facts in manydifferent ways. L. M., & Nuttall, R. Gender identity is influenced primarily by familial and societalexpectations and is thought to be set by the age of three years, althoughhormonal modification at puberty has some potential (Headapohl, 1993, p.698). Boys' suppression of emotion, aggression, andindependence are socially rewarded, and girls are discouraged fromdisplaying these characteristics (Tiefer & Kring, 1995, p. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. These sex-based assumptions are likely to result in at leastsome differences in how parents treat boys and girls. As a result, theyreport, the average woman is smaller and has two-thirds the muscle strengthof the average man. In adolescence, the peer group may exert a strong influence on genderbehavior. These areas may beinfluenced significantly by one's identification as male or female (Tiefer& Kring, 1995, p. Whetherbehavior is predetermined by nature or acquired by nurture is stilldebatable. Researchers agree that biological and social variables interact, butthey disagree about the relative importance of biology and culture. Some argue thatscience itself is patriarchal and that the study of women is affected bythis viewpoint. The revolution ingender roles that has affected expectations in the worlds of politics,family, sports, religion, and the arts has begun to extend even to genderidentity, creating "gender-blending", "gender-bending", or "transgenderist"as new categories (Tiefer & Kring, 1995, p. Schore, A. The purpose of such discussion is to searchfor a more objective understanding of gender behavior apart from myths andstereotypes. However, research reports that deviations may occur at anyof the six levels (Tiefer & Kring, 1995, p.26). For example, they reported research on humans which showed arelationship between sex hormone levels and "tomboy" behavior, andrejection of femininity along with non-traditional career aspirations ofgirls. Given the multiple variables postulated, several sexualcategories, not just two, are likely. Beliefs about males and females, together with assumptions about whatconstitutes appropriate behaviors for each, may also affect many aspects ofsexual sharing. This information is quite thought-provoking when considering how theinterpretation of early history contributes to concepts of gender roles inpresent-day society, since the stereotypic feminine gender traits ofpassivity have been partially formulated on the basis of the generalconcept of males "bringing home the bacon". In the present vocabulary, a person can be assigned a sex from onlytwo categories. Nonetheless, physical and sexual dichotomy has led to an almostuniversal division of labor by gender; culture alone cannot account forthis (Headapohl, 1993, p. One is either a boy or a girl. 7 ). 26 -268). 26). Males show greater mathematical skills from adolescence onward. These physical and physiologic differences contribute significantly to theconcept of gender as well as gender identity (Headapohl, 1993, p. In A. These results support a biological/environmentalinteraction explanation to the interest in cross-gender activities ofparticipants in the study. For example, boys who seem sensitive or nonaggressive may beridiculed, and girls who behave in an assertive or independent manner maybe criticized or ostracized (Tiefer & Kring, 1995, p. Most theorists seem to agree that appropriate feminine or masculinebehavior is defined differently within each culture. The women they studied whoperceived their parents as definitely giving them permission for cross-gender behavior and activities (e.g., non-traditional toy and careerpreferences), demonstrated high masculine/low feminine characteristics onthe Bem Sex Role Inventory. Sociobiologists claim that genetic make-up is a significantdeterminant of behavior, attitudes, and temperament. Although increasing numbers ofparents are becoming sensitive to the gender role implications of a child'splaythings, many others encourage their children to play with gender-specific toys and discourage toys "inappropriate" to the specific gender.For example, girls are often given dolls, dollhouses and tea sets, and boysfrequently receive things like trucks, toy guns, and footballs. 698). The hypothesis of "woman the gatherer" is offered as an adjunctto "man the hunter". Actually, people tend to range from being very masculine or feminineto being both masculine and feminine, i.e., androgynous (Tiefer & Kring,1995, p. Gender is different from sex. Sexual differences are fixed frombirth. 699). They have incorporated aspects of masculinity and femininity intotheir lifestyles in the pursuit of an individual sense of well being. Dosocieties merely reinforce biologically determined gender traits or,considered in the "man the hunter" hypothesis, do they invent gender modelsand then ascribe biological roots to them? Headapohl, D. These normative standards are labeled gender roles or sex roles.Being assigned a gender role means one must conform to certain assumptionsabout how to behave. Evolutionary forces may have favored nurturing instincts in femalesand aggression in males, but evolution also rewards diversity. Social change over the past decade has resultedin greater acceptance of non-traditional gender behaviors. Gender is more like a mosaic ofpossibilities than a simple dichotomy. Early theoriesof evolution identified hunting and the use of weapons as the activitiesthat distinguished humans from primates (Zihlman, 1981, as cited inHeadapohl, 1993, p. When this information is consideredin relation to the power of socializing agents on a person's development,when a person does not behave in ways which match the social stereotypesfor his or her gender role, repercussions may result, in terms of howsecure he or she feels with his or her gender identity. In this theory, women are not seen as passive but asfully participating in the collection and sharing of food, the use oftools, and care-giving (Zihlman, 1981, as cited in Headapohl, 1993, p.7 ). Likewise, a women whotakes a class in automechanics is seen as rejecting her femininity in favorof a masculine pursuit. References Casey, M. Research agrees that,until puberty, the sexes differ little in size and strength. Theterm "androgyny" is sometimes used to describe a combination of male andfemale gender behaviors. The cross-gender identity in this groupdiffered significantly from the traditional gender role identity found inall other groups of females. This body of research estimated that morethan a third of the female population has this type of brain organization,and more than 5 percent of the population of college women (Casey, et al,1995, p. You are alittle boy." Tiefer and Kring (1995) contend that a child develops asubjective experience of his or her gender identity by conforming to ananswer that is based on adult identification of the newborn baby's externalgenitalia. However, one isconsidered either masculine or feminine, and one cannot be both. For example, girlsare often treated as if they were more fragile than boys. Schore's (1994) work on the neurobiology ofemotional development contends that sex steroids play an important role inthe hormonal organization of neural circuits postnatally, which may resultin differences between one's biological sex and one's gender behaviors,affect, and cognition. N. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 18, 25-37. The human infant is extremely dependent.Because women alone bear and nurse babies, they naturally took care of veryyoung children and presumably depended on men for food (Zihlman, 1981, ascited in Headapohl, 1993, p. Headapohl (1993) states that fetal sexual organs are originally"female" but can become "masculinized" at critical stages by testosteroneand its metabolite, estradiol (a female hormone), and reports that geneticsand hormones may affect the fetal brain in a similar manner, causing it tobecome "female" or "male". The male contribution, on theother hand, was primarily insemination and subsequent provision of food andprotection in the role of producer. Brainand Cognition, 27, 237-246. Schore (Ed.), Affect regulation and theorigin of the self: The neurobiology of emotional development (pp. Contemporary theorists have expanded the definition of femalereproductive activities to include child care and the domestic workrequired to maintain a family and household. When one looks at the relationship between gender and sexualbehavior, considering socially conditioned beliefs and attitudes isimportant. Experts do not agree on the universality of male and female traitsand behaviors, and which are biologically or sociologically determined.However, in many cultures, four areas of human behavior consistently showgender differences (Maccaby & Jacklin, 1987, as cited in Headapohl, 1993,p. Only a few studies have examined the interaction of socialization andbiological factors contributing to how men and women acquire gender roles.Casey, Brabeck, and Nuttall (1995) examined how biological predispositioninteracts with perceived parental influences to affect cross-gender roleidentity. N. Although recent experience with women athletes hasshown a remarkable narrowing of the gender gap, basic biologic differenceswill probably always result in some difference in strength (Schrier 199 ,as cited in Headapohl, 1993, p. Teens tend to have rigid views of what constitutes appropriatebehavior. If science truly ispatriarchal, discounting the facts in favor of a feminist-orientedscientific approach is not necessarily better or closer to the "truth".Despite the disagreement and debate, what accounts for the rich diversityof individuals within the same gender and the overlap between genders insociety seems to be a combination of biologic, evolutionary, and culturalforces as well as individual choice. (1995). Sex, gender, biology, and work. B., Braebeck, M. Research indicates that parents become increasingly likelyto treat their male and female children differently as they grow older.Somewhere around age 2, gender typing increases. 699). 699): 1. These assumptions often limit the natureof human relationships and make people the victims of societal notionsabout how men and women are supposed to behave. 31). Evidently, people vary in the extent to which these qualities areincorporated into their personalities. Under normalconditions, these biological variations interact harmoniously to determinebiological sex. While many individuals arecomfortable fulfilling a traditional masculine or feminine role, anexamination of scientific fact on real differences in basic biology mayyield an enriched understanding of humanity. 686). Gender and the Organization ofSexual Behavior. 26). Males are more aggressive, beginning in early childhood. In real life, many individuals have moved beyond traditional genderroles. 33). Males are stereotypically considered to be logical,unemotional, dominant, competitive, and objective. Based on this information, theresulting development of a person's biological sex may seriously complicatethe acquisition of a gender identity. What combination of biology,socialization, and individual choice determines behavior? Society ascribes a set ofbehaviors that are considered normal and appropriate for one's particularsex. The Influence of Biologic Differences on Gender Behavior The following paper attempts to elucidate, integrate, and discussrecent research on the influence of biologic differences between males andfemales on gender behavior. Scientific "truth" is relative, and different vantagepoints may yield seemingly inconsistent conclusions. Discussing these issueswithout bias is difficult. OccupationalMedicine: State of the Art Reviews, 8, 685-7 7. However, many men and women possesscharacteristics consistent with traditional gender assumptions but alsohave interests and behavioral tendencies typically ascribed to the othersex. 3. An assessment of men and women as sexual beings revealsexpectations for intimate relationships, perceptions of the quality of suchexperiences, and other responses to sexuality. Wilson,one of the founders of sociobiology, thought that biology alone explainedless than one-fourth of human behavior and that the remainder was primarilyaffected by environmental factors such as nutrition, social interaction,physical contact, and sensory input (Wilson, 1975, as cited in Headapohl,1993, p. The survival of a speciesrequires successful reproduction consisting of mating, conception, birth,and nurturing of offspring. 685). In real life, "gender" cantake a wide range of forms, and people rarely fall strictly into themasculine or feminine camps of gender roles or gender identity. While men and women have fewerphysical differences than many primate species, they are still significant. 699).
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