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ALTITUDE & ATHLETES.
Term Paper ID:24083
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Essay Subject:
Effects of high altitude on athletic performance, training needs, oxygen use & availability, endurance, dangers.... More...
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9 Pages / 2025 Words
8 sources, 16 Citations,
APA Format
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Paper Abstract:
Effects of high altitude on athletic performance, training needs, oxygen use & availability, endurance, dangers.
Paper Introduction:
Altitude and its effects on athletic performance will be discussed with regard to the following subtopics: adaptations the body makes as a person goes from sea level to a high altitude; changes brought about by aerobic compared to anaerobic exercises at high altitude; and the effects, positive or negative, of training at altitude. A drastic case study will be cited to demonstrate the magnitude of the effect of altitude change on physiology.
At altitudes of over 5,000 feet, the ability to perform physical work is affected--the higher the altitude, the more severe the effects. In general, one can expect a reduction in endurance capacity as measured by the maximal oxygen consumption of 3 to 3.5 percent for every 1,000 feet ascended above 5,000 feet. Work performance and maximum oxygen consumption are
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The temperature on the field was in the mid 7 s andthe humidity was low. J. Six hours after his collapse, he was evacuated to aregional medical center and admitted to intensive care with hypotension andtachycardia. High-altitude training increases the concentration ofred blood cells in the blood. 52).One of the negative side-effects is an increase in hemoglobinconcentration. In the American Journal of Sports Medicine, Rusko (1996) reports onstudies which have attempted to improve athletic performance without someof the negative effects of altitude: In the last 2 years, maximal oxygen uptake of athletes in different sports disciplines has increased, and the world records in distance running have improved. This is because the major problem at altitudeis hypoxia, which significantly reduces oxygen availability. M. The percentage of oxygen in the air remains 2 .93percent, but the number of oxygen molecules per unit of volume decreases.This means that, when at altitude, in order to receive the same number ofmolecules in a breath of air that people receive at sea level, they mustbreathe more air. (1981). The young athlete had a physical with normalindications. The sudden death of a young athlete reported in the American Journalof Sports Medicine by Craven (1992) shows the very real consequence oftraining at high altitude. In the Mexico City Olympics, "there was either improvement or noimpairment of performance in running events up to 4 meters. The physiological basis of PE and athletics.New York: CBS College Publishing. Thus, altitude-trained athletes' bloodviscosity starts high and gets even higher as water is lost. Even at medium altitudes, theeffects of altitude need to be addressed. The likelyreason for this is that both oxygen consumption and the work output arelimited at high altitude" (Bursztyn, 199 , p. Some final aspects to training at altitude are sobering. D. Such an approach is a reversal of the previously(incorrectly) held hypothesis that training high could improve endurance atlow altitude. New aspects to altitude training. (ThirdWorld Congress on Sports Sciences). The force of gravityis slightly less at altitude, so that the work required to lift the body(as in the high jump and pole vault) is decreased. Infact, a few people never acclimatize and continue to suffer mountain oraltitude sickness while at altitude. The next morning, during a timed mile run with a group ofteammates, he was unable to complete his final lap. Fox (1988) puts"high altitude" into perspective: More than approximately 15 million people live at an altitude higher than 1 , feet. He was dyspneic andappeared exhausted. (1992). Rusko (1996) concludes his review article by advocating the use of an"altitude house" to stimulate the effects of training at altitude withoutany of the negative side-effects (p. American Journal of Sports Medicine,6, 48-52.----------------------- 3 The Mexico City games wereresponsible for a great deal of interest in the effects of altitude onathletic performance, giving rise to much physiologic research in the areaof sports medicine. 48). In terms of the effect of altitude--even that as low as 5, feet--the athlete had not developed compensatory erythrocytosis, but was mildlyanemic. Even so, the practicaleffect on performance is probably quite small. However, almost all endurance athletes used altitude training for enhancement of their performances in the Olympic Games in Atlanta, which were held near sea level (p. Performance may actually be improved at high altitude in certaintypes of activity that are of short duration, because of the decreased airresistance. (1992). New York:Manchester UP. The longer an athlete stays at altitude, the better becomes his orher performance, but it never quite reaches the values obtained at sealevel. Several weeks of training at high altitude can make sea- levelathletes competitive with mountain natives at high altitude athleticmeetings. He complained of beingunable to catch his breath and of having leg cramps. 443). At high altitudes, endurance is often limited by the combined effectsof reduced blood volume and increased blood viscosity as water (sweat) islost from the body. R. 7). Bursztyn, P. High altitude training: Aspects ofhematological adaptation. (1992). Altitude and its effects on athletic performance will be discussedwith regard to the following subtopics: adaptations the body makes as aperson goes from sea level to a high altitude; changes brought about byaerobic compared to anaerobic exercises at high altitude; and the effects,positive or negative, of training at altitude. A practical approach to altitude training:Where to live and train for optimal performance enhancement. (1995). 99). The main reason for lessened performance at altitude isa consequence of the lowered oxygen partial pressure. Solar radiationis more intense at high altitude than at sea level, and athletes must beaware of the debilitating effects of the sun's rays. 289-3 3).Rusko (1996) emphasizes that very few studies show that red blood cell massreally has increased in athletes after training at altitude (p. 443). However, "there is little evidence that a period of training athigh altitude benefits athletes who then compete at sea level. The diminished resistance toair flow in the respiratory tract decreases the work required to move agiven volume of air into and out of the lungs. Physiology of exercise. A new approach to altitude training was introduced by Levine andcoworkers in 1991 (Levine, 1992, p. One response to high altitude hypoxia is that new capillaries developin muscle, increasing the density of the blood supply and reducing thediffusion distance. Thephysical fitness of healthy individuals, measured at sea level, is not asufficient index of their ability to perform hard physical work at highaltitudes. Hypoxia stimulates the acclimatization mechanisms. 2 9-212). Fox, E. The reduced density ofthe air affects the mechanics of breathing. The air is cooler and drier at altitude; this makes exertionmore pleasant, but it also increases the water loss from the respiratorytract, and this may contribute to the dehydration of exercise, as well ascausing a sensation of soreness and dryness of the throat. References Berglund, B. Medical Science of Sports and Exercise(Supplement), 7. Rusko, H. Rusko (1996) gives the following account of altitude house in Finland(where there are no mountains). This lowered oxygenpartial pressure results in hypoxia, i.e., lack of adequate oxygen. A review of the literature shows that we have much data that show that hemoglobin and hematocrit values of athletes are increased after acclimatization and altitude training but, because of the plasma volume changes, this cannot be regarded as clear evidence that red blood cell mass has also increased after altitude training (p. Craven, C. Levine and coworkers (1992) found that acclimatization toaltitude may be the most important factor for improving exerciseperformance at sea level (p. Theseare only approximations because a great deal depends on the individual. The nitrogen produced is mixed with ambient air and conducted to the altitude house, which was carefully made as airtight as possible ... Related to the aerobic effect of training at high altitude is thedecrease in oxygen saturation of blood. Morehouse, L. 99). 49). The physiology of acclimatization explains why the athlete movingfrom sea level to high altitude must "train harder." As people ascendabove sea level, the barometric pressure decreases as the weight of theatmosphere becomes less. The likely reason for this is that both oxygenconsumption and the work output are limited at high altitude. Levine, B. Depending uponaltitude and length of stay, among the important physiological changes thattake place during acclimatization to altitude are the following: increasedpulmonary ventilation (hyperventilation), increased number of red bloodcells and hemoglobin concentration, elimination of bicarbonate in theurine, and tissue level changes. The extremely fitperson is as likely to become ill as is the sedentary person. V.Mosby. Adequate control groups wereused to test the hypothesis that living high and training low could improveperformance. This increases the oxygen-carrying capacity--but also increasesblood viscosity, thus tending to reduce the cardiac output. The concentration of the enzymes which are responsiblefor aerobic metabolism also increases, tending to improve oxygen uptake.Finally, high altitude hypoxia stimulates the production of red bloodcells, raising the red cell and hemoglobin content of the blood within afew weeks. Occasionally,natives of high altitude develop Monge's Disease, in which red cells formover 75 percent of the blood volume (45 percent is normal), more thandoubling the blood viscosity (Bursztyn, 199 , p. Further, athletes living and training at altitude won most of the Olympic medals in distance running in 1988 and 1992. The training at lower altitude madepossible avoiding the problems related to decreased training pace usuallyseen at altitude. 621-623). Most athletic competition in the United States takes place in areas located below this altitude. He went into cardiac arrest as he was being prepped forsurgery and died 1 .5 hours after his timed run and cardiac arrest (p. Death could be one of the physiological resultsof training at altitude. The oxygen saturation of bloodduring submaximal exercise at 85 percent maximal oxygen uptake decreased inelite endurance athletes compared with nonelite athletes, even at sealevel, and a further decrease occurs when athletes go to a mild altitude of75 meters or when they train at maximal oxygen uptake intensity. He flew from his homeat sea level to the campus, located at an altitude of more than 1,5 meters (about 5, feet). Another effect of thedecreased air density is a diminished air resistance to movement of thebody that may result in improved performance in sprint activities and inother events in which air resistance is a factor (jumping, discus,javelin). L. Acclimatization refers to certain physiological adjustments which arebrought about through continued exposure to altitude and whichsignificantly improve performance. Athletic events are often held at medium altitudes (the 1968 OlympicGames in Mexico City, elevation 7,6 feet). Sudden death in a young athlete: A casereport. Although this medical case isextreme, and includes a genetic weakness (anemia), the hemodynamiccompromise brought on by altitude is suspected as a contributing cause. Although such reductions inphysical performance are large as they stand, they are based on physicallyfit and acclimatized mountain climbers. 443). Gore, C. E. In addition, physical fitness bears no relationship to theoccurrence of symptoms of acute altitude sickness. One of the factors that has influenced the increase in maximal oxygen uptake and the improvement of world records has been perceived to be altitude training because residence and exercise at altitude may have a significant influence on each component of the oxygen transport chain. 2 9-212). Altitude mainly affects endurance or aerobic activities rather thansprint or anaerobic events. Physiology for Sportspeople. The physicians determined that the mild anemia, coupled with therelative hypoxia (insufficient oxygen supply) due to the higher altitude,may have directly contributed to his death. The reason for this is that sprint activities are poweredlargely by anaerobic metabolism and, as such, are not greatly affected byaerobic availability. A 19-year-old man had been recruited to playfootball for a university during his freshman year. InternationalJournal of Sports Medicine, 13, (Supplement 1), 2 9-212. (1996). The purpose of the altitude house was tostudy the living high and training low hypothesis further: The altitude house consists of a nitrogen membrane generator, air compressor, mixing system, and two independent control systems. 217). Also,the maximal oxygen uptake of elite athletes is decreased at altitudes lowerthan 1, meters (Gore, 1995, p. Berglund (1992) reports the following: A common finding on exposure to altitude hypoxia is a transient increase in hemoglobin concentration and hematocrit because of a rapid decrease in plasma volume, followed a few days later by an increase in erythropoiesis per se ... (199 ). New York: C. This means that the intensity ofwork that can be performed in a steady state (such as distance runningevents) is reduced, and anaerobic metabolism must be called on tosupplement aerobic metabolism at a lower rate of exertion. A drastic case study willbe cited to demonstrate the magnitude of the effect of altitude change onphysiology. Several studies have shown that altitude training improves maximal oxygen uptake and performance at altitude, but there is not so much evidence that it is helpful for sea-level performance. Three studies have been done on athletes to investigate the living high and training low hypothesis and the function of the altitude house ... There islittle evidence that training at high altitude benefits athletes who thencompete at sea level. For the unacclimated person, additionaloxygen is essential above 18, feet (5,488 meters). Aerobic power (maximal oxygen uptake) is, on theother hand, reduced at high altitude. The number of weeks to acclimatize depends onthe altitude, i.e., for 9, feet, about 7 to 1 days, for 12, feet, 15to 21 days, and for 15, feet, 21 to 25 days (Fox, 1981, p. Physiologically, the most important feature of high altitude is thediminished pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere. In conclusion, (1.) the altitude house can be used to simulate moderate altitude living atmosphere at sea level and to stimulate erythropoiesis at sea level in athletes, and (2.) the living high and training low approach seems to give all the benefits of altitude acclimatization and seems to have the potential to avoid the problems related to normal altitude training, and finally, (3.) these new aspects--the altitude house and the living high and training low approach--seem to provide the best approach for the enhancement of sea- level performance in elite athletes (p. In Mexico City, the timerequired for recovery after events was much greater than at sea level.Exercises of strength (weight lifting) are, like sprint activities, poweredlargely by anaerobic metabolism and are therefore not affected by highaltitude. Ingeneral, one can expect a reduction in endurance capacity as measured bythe maximal oxygen consumption of 3 to 3.5 percent for every 1, feetascended above 5, feet. The improved performance during a stay at one altitude is broughtabout by acclimatization. Work performance and maximum oxygen consumptionare reduced by 6 percent or more at extremely high altitudes, i.e., ataround 25, feet (Fox, 1981, p. There was animpairment of about 3% in the 8 meter run, and of 1 % in the 5, and1 , meter events" (Morehouse, 1976, p. (1976). Finally,some subjects, regardless of physical condition, do not tolerate altitudewell and may be expected to become ineffective, ill, or dead. Sports Medicine, 14, 289-3 3. They tested the living highand training low ("high-low") hypothesis in nine competitive runners duringa four-week experimental training period. At altitudes of over 5, feet, the ability to perform physical workis affected--the higher the altitude, the more severe the effects. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 5, 621-623. Maximal oxygen uptake and arterial oxygensaturation at sea level and 61 m. This means that since the effects of altitudes below 5, feet are not great, from a practical standpoint, we need to be concerned mainly with the effects on athletic competition of altitudes between 5, and 1 , feet (p. 5 ).
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