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CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN ORGANIZATIONS.
Term Paper ID:24287
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Essay Subject:
Background, theory (social identity, categorization, group processes), work groups, govt. & corp. diversity management, gender, conflict.... More...
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12 Pages / 2700 Words
10 sources, 32 Citations,
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Paper Abstract:
Background, theory (social identity, categorization, group processes), work groups, govt. & corp. diversity management, gender, conflict.
Paper Introduction:
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this research is explore the issue of cultural diversity, especially ethnic diversity, in organizations, together with strategies than may be used to successfully manage diversity within organizations. This topic was selected for research because the management of cultural diversity will be central to the success of American organizations in the future.
While the United States has long been considered to be a nation of immigrants, the bulk of the newcomers during most of the nation’s history were from the various European cultures with which their predecessors also identified. Beginning in the 1960s, however, the proportion of Europeans among immigrants to the United States has decreased steadily. Thus, an ever increasing number of ethni
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In order for such actions tohave no detrimental economic impacts on the firms affected, it would benecessary for females and non-Anglo males with the same qualifications asavailable Anglo males to be available in sufficient numbers. K. Weisman, D. (1994, Winter). A real need exists to discover how to integratedivergent perspectives and overcome the major sources of process lossassociated with heterogeneity. 38-47). Larkey, L. L., & Christensen, S. 3). While the United States has long been considered to be a nation ofimmigrants, the bulk of the newcomers during most of the nation's historywere from the various European cultures with which their predecessors alsoidentified. 4 2-433). 434-462). Jenner, L. (1994, October). Social identity theory posits that groups areformed on the bases of self-definition, attraction, and culturalparticipation (Nemetz & Christensen, 1996, pp. Nemetz, P. Thus, employers are tempted to continuepractices that have the effect of defeating affirmative action goals. Dufort, F., & Maheux, B. B., & Hukill, E. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The data for this research were obtained through a search of therelevant literature. Milliken, F. Cultural diversity has been found to hinder group and organizationalperformance, especially during times of crisis or rapid change (Larkey,1996, pp. Journal of Nursing Administration, 24(1 ), 38-47. The dominant value structure within a group can be the source ofwithin-group conflict (Larkey, 1996, pp. Groups are collections of individuals that are attracted to oneanother and who are held together by a variety of social forces (Milliken &Martins, 1996, pp. This process is accorded a central role in social identity theory.Categorization involves the psychological accentuation of differencesbetween categories and the attenuation of differences between objectswithin categories. Group leaders must understandtheir own views in relation to power, communication, and organizationalculture before attempting to understand the views of other group members. Technology (an organization'smaterial resources and physical environment) constrains and patterns groupactivity, and, thus, is a source of potential conflict within the group.The fit between a group's material resources and the group purpose caneither minimize within-group conflict (good fit) or exacerbate suchconflict (poor fit). Within-group conflict isthe level of interest in this discussion. This hypothesisleads to a conceptualization of groups as the sum of the individualproperties of their members. 463-491). (1995, January-February). ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF DIVERSITY Cultural diversity is managed most effectively within organizationalstructures when the leadership emphasis occurs at the work group level.The behaviors of group leaders need to vary as groups mature to promoteoptimal group effectiveness (Nemetz & Christensen, 1996, pp. Avoidance tactics are employed in suchinstances. The likelihood is that eachof the arguments partially explains the phenomenon. Performancedifferences between all-male and all-female groups have been found to bethe products of structure and social programming. The formation and role of groups inorganizations is reviewed, and the governmental approach to the impositionof a framework for the management of cultural diversity in organizations ofconsidered. An introduction to the social identityapproach. Laschinger, H. Social identity theory: Constructiveand critical advances. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS The major conclusion drawn from the findings of this research is thatcultural diversity within organizational environments can be managed moreeffectively for the benefit of society, all of the members of theorganization, and the organization itself from within the organization, asopposed to having a management framework imposed from outside theorganization. This topic was selected for research because the managementof cultural diversity will be central to the success of Americanorganizations in the future. 4-6). Thus, an essential role of a group leader isthe guidance of group decision-making processes to promote high-qualitydecisions. The development of groupcohesion through integration reduces the potential for within-groupconflict. Thus,when government regulators assume that discrimination is present within afirm when gender, racial, and ethnic groups are not represented in the firmin the same proportions in which they are represented in the generalpopulation, the application of non-discriminatory employment policies by afirm will not insure that the firm's work force will be composed of themost productive individuals available. The issues confrontingorganizational and strategies for dealing with these issues are addressedin the remainder of this research. Beginning in the 196 s, however, the proportion of Europeansamong immigrants to the United States has decreased steadily. Thus, group purpose exerts a strong effect on group membership,group action, and the self-identity of individual group members. Acting within the context of a grouplowers an individual's self-awareness while raising the level of group-awareness. Smith, G. REFERENCES Abrams, D., & Hogg, M. The treatment of cultural diversity withinorganizational environments is in a period of dynamic evolution.Therefore, the latest developments likely have not been reported in thescholarly literature. Affirmative action generally requires a firmto focus on legal requirements associated with recruitment, hiring,promotion, and dismissal (Jenner, 1994, p. FORMATION AND ROLE OF GROUPS IN ORGANIZATIONS Organizational effectiveness may be either enhanced or inhibitedthrough the actions of internal groups (Larkey, 1996, pp. The status of work-groups also affects within-group conflict levels(Larkey, 1996, pp. 4 2-433). from one's knowledge of sharing a social categorymembership with others, even without necessarily having close personalrelationships with, knowing or having any material personal interest intheir outcomes" (Abrams & Hogg, 1994, p. If management fails inthis task, organizational performance suffers. L. Affirmative actionlegislation in the United States at both the federal and state levels ofgovernment establish guidelines for the development and implementation ofsocial policy with respect to equal employment opportunities and withrespect to the rectification of past acts of employment discriminationagainst selected population groups. 463-491). 1-12). It becomes imperative for organizational management to channel thiscultural diversity into productive interactions. Within-group conflict alsomay be managed through the development of alliances through which sharednorms are accepted. 434-462). 1-9. Within-group conflict involving issues of equity (people conflict)frequently are dealt with through a process of subjugation (Nemetz &Christensen, 1996, pp. The effectiveness of a group,therefore, is in great part a function of the development of a consensusamong group members in relation to the group's objectives. To beeffective, both team leaders and team members must remain aware of bothwhat is being said-content-and how things are being said-process. Task conflicts are associated with theinterdependence character of group functions. The multiculturalworkplace is, in itself, a source of conflict for groups. Grouppurpose also affects the development of a common commitment of members tothe group (Larkey, 1996, pp. Thesedifferences tend to evaporate, however, when females and males arerepresented in approximately equal proportions within groups (Dufort &Maheux, 1995, pp. Therefore, group leaderscannot afford to attempt to deal with process loss associated with culturaldiversity through a retreat from the present. Accentuation occurs only on those dimensions believedby an individual to be correlated with the categorization process (Abrams &Hogg, 1994, p. Thus, anever increasing number of ethnic communities have developed and continue todevelop in this country whose social mores are quite different from theEuropean cultural values that tend to characterized the behaviors of themajority of the American population. Violation of suchvalues by a group member can cause a high-level of dissatisfaction withthat member by the other group members. 4 2-433). (1994, January). (1996). 463-491). In actual practice, for whatever reasons (the lingering effects ofpast discrimination, societal imposed roles, the presence of discriminationin contemporary society, the distribution of abilities and motivations tolearn, or other factors), knowledge bases, and skill levels are notcomparable between all racial and ethnic groups, or between men and womenwithin the context of the work force (Weisman, 1994, pp. There are a number of factors that serve as the source of within-groupconflict (Larkey, 1996, pp. HR Focus, 71, 11. Academy of Management Review, 21(2), 4 2-433. (1994). Staff nurses' andnurse managers' perceptions of job-related empowerment and managerial self-efficacy. Lastly, organizational strategies for the management ofdiversity are examined. 462-491). 434-462). 553-582). 157-162). 434-462).During all stages of the group activity, however, the group leader must actto minimize uncertainty and reduce tension. Within the context ofsocial identity theory, thus, self-concept reflects "a collection of self-images which vary in terms of the length of their establishment, complexityand richness of content" (Abrams & Hogg, 1994, p. In a structural context,task contents and settings that favor the interests or abilities one aspecific gender results in performance differences. Gender is one dimension of cultural diversity that affects groupdynamics (Nemetz & Christensen, 1996, pp. Group membership affects the sense of identity for individual groupmembers (Larkey, 1996, pp. Rather, it is incumbent upongroup leaders to find ways to improve the efficiency of consensusdevelopment. J., & Martins, L. (1996). L. Increasing cultural pluralism in the United States emphasizesthe need to both understand and manage group processes in contemporaryorganizations (Nemetz & Christensen, 1996, pp. 463-491). Group status and group powerare linked through the degree of autonomy delegated to a group. Within the context ofsocial programming, performance differences have been associated with theaggressiveness of males, and with a tendency by females to be friendly andagreeable in the functioning of group decision-making processes. The integration ofculturally differing perspectives within organizations is accomplishedthrough the process of group dynamics (Smith & Comer, 1994, pp. 3). One means of eliminating within-group conflict is through the externalization of aggression, anger, anddissatisfaction through the process of scapegoating. The challenge of culturaldiversity: Harnessing a diversity of views to understand multiculturalism.Academy of Management Review, 21(2), 434-462. 434-462). Resource scarcity is associated with higher levels ofwithin-group conflict. In theory, employment discrimination regulation has a sound basis. Consequently, the productivity ofwomen in groups tends to be higher than that of men. Social identity is defined as the individual's knowledge of personalmembership in specific social groups, together with the emotional value andsignificance placed on such membership by the individual (Milliken &Martins, 1996, pp. The best available data, however, were used in thisresearch. Group leaders must work to minimize the polarization ofattitudes. (1994, July). Stereotyping and bias are significant concerns in the functioning ofgroups in the contemporary environment in relation to individual sexualpreferences, gender, and ethnicity (Milliken & Martins, 1996, pp. Compromise also is invoked as a means of managing within-groupconflict. K., & Shamian, J. Journal of the American Medical Women's'Association, 5 (1), 4-6. 3). 434-462). Increasedpluralism in organizations is going to continue. Groupjudgments tend to be more extreme than the judgments of individual groupmembers. L. Thus, affirmative action orders often havedetrimental impacts on the productivity and the profitability of individualfirms, as well as on the quality of output, total output, and productivityof the American economy. These distortions are exacerbated,when employment discrimination regulations are intended to rectify theeffects of past discrimination-affirmative action goal compliance. When female medicalstudents are the majority. Individuals apply the process of categorization to"partition the world into comprehensible units" (Abrams & Hogg, 1994, p.2). Income distribution objectives, lawsprohibiting social discrimination, and, in some instances, policiesintended to rectify the effects of past discrimination-affirmative actiongoals-have all become a part of the rules of the game for American businessorganizations. Apsychosocial group is the interaction of two or more people wherein theexistence of all those persons interacting is necessary for the needssatisfaction of each of the interacting individuals. The social realities of groups are shaped by members' cognitivestructures that frequently vary according to ethnicity. A counter proposition, however, is thatgroups represent an amalgam of individual and structural attributes. 463-491). Self-organization in small groups.Human Relations, 47(5), 553-582. 463-491). 463-491). An individual can derive "a sense of involvement,concern and pride ... Work groups are intact social systems that perform one or more taskswithin an organizational context (Smith & Hukill, 1994, pp. Why employer discretion may lead tomore effective affirmative action policies. (1994, May). Searching for commonthreads: Understanding the multiple effects of diversity in organizationalgroups. The higher the level of work-group autonomy,the lower the level of within-group conflict. Organizational conflict exists at the interpersonal, within-group, andintergroup levels (Larkey, 1996, pp. Hertfordshire, England: Harvester Wheatsheaf, pp. The advantages associated with the multiplicity ofperspectives introduced into a group by cultural diversity tend to beoffset by problems associated with the development of consensus. People conflicts at the level ofwithin-group conflict does not refer to interpersonal conflict. GOVERNMENTAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF DIVERSITY The governmental approach for the management of cultural diversity inorganizations in the United States has been the imposition of theaffirmative action framework. The findings of this research imply, however, iforganizational management does not address effectively diversity issues, anexternal solution will be imposed. Negative attitudes and misinformation within groups reinforce stereotypingand bias, and lead to ineffective group performance. Journal of Nursing Care Quality, 8(4), 1-12. 11). Rather,people conflicts in the context of within-group conflict involves issues ofequity among group members. The process of categorization "produces the search for distinguishingfeatures" (Abrams & Hogg, 1994, p. Anunderstanding of group processes, thus, is essential for organizationalmanagers. Diversity management. Whenrectification is the intent of employment discrimination regulations,government regulators and courts often direct firms to hire, promote, orretain females and non-Anglo males in numbers disproportionate to theirrepresentation in the general population. Social identity, thus, is closely related toself-concept. Within-group conflict involvesboth people conflicts and task conflicts. In actualpractice, the required number of similarly qualified females and non-Anglomales has not been available to most firms to which affirmative actionorders have been applied. Equal opportunity and fair employment practices legislationhas been enacted and enforced (with varying degrees of vigor, dependingupon the philosophical stance of the administration in power) since theearly-196 s. Task conflicts within groups are effectively managed through theprocess of integration. This writer recommends thatorganizational management actively seek innovative ways to managediversity, as opposed to waiting for the pot to boil. Such behavior is closely associated with bothcompromise behavior and integration activities. (1996). Values are the basis of groupjudgments concerning appropriate behaviors for group members. Ineither instance, however, organizational management is confronted with aformidable problem. Differences invalue systems and cultural mores require cultural adjustment within groups. Inpractice, however, the proponents of such legislation, having found thatthe elimination of discrimination on the basis of sex, racial or ethnicbackground, religious preference, or age would not result in therepresentation of individuals with these characteristics in all types andlevels of employment and in all compensation levels in the same proportionsas such individuals are found in the general population, have begun todemand an equality of outcome, as opposed to an equality of opportunity.The equality of outcome concept if implemented, as opposed to the equalityof opportunity concept, likely will have adverse impacts on both the short-run and on the long-run profitability of business and industry, as well ason the economic and the social health of the country. 434-462). Smith, C., & Comer, D. To "the extent that the in-group is perceived as both different and better than the out-group, ...one's social identity is enhanced" (Abrams & Hogg, 1994, p. Group members tend tounconsciously displace unexpressed negative emotions onto other groups toreduce feelings of internal conflict and threat within the group. Integrative conflict-management strategies have been found tolead to higher quality decisions, as opposed to the application ofdistributive decision-making strategies. Academy of Management Review, 21(2), 463-491. There is an absence of performance differencesrelated to gender, however, where sex-neutral tasks were involved.Importantly for the group process, women have been found to be better ableto develop group cohesion than males. The delegation ofautonomy to groups within an organization empowers personnel within groupsto develop the strategies that effectively integrate pluralisticperspectives (Laschinger & Shamian, 1994, pp. Quality work improvementgroups. A linear relationship tends to exist between the quality of groupdecisions and the number and frequency of conflict episodes within groups(Larkey, 1996, pp. This study assumed, however, that the distribution ofabilities and motivations to learn, knowledge bases, and skill levels weresimilar in all racial and ethnic groups, and in both men and women.Proceeding from these assumptions, the researchers further assumed thatemployment policies based upon performance or potential performance wouldresult in an integrated workforce in which a firm would acquire and retainonly the most efficient workers. One study concludedthat firms would enjoy increased profitability as a result of theelimination of compensation differentials based upon sex or upon racial orethnic background. Within-group conflict is managed through are variety of activities(Nemetz & Christensen, 1996, pp. 3). Toward a theory of communicative interactions inculturally diverse workgroups. Ethnicity serves as a basis for association, self-definition, andparticipation behaviors that affect group performance (Milliken & Martins,1996, pp. The need by an individual for apositive identity motivates an effort to differentiate in favor of the in-group. 3). INTRODUCTION The purpose of this research is explore the issue of culturaldiversity, especially ethnic diversity, in organizations, together withstrategies than may be used to successfully manage diversity withinorganizations. 4 2-433). In Abrams, D., & Hogg, M. Two alternative explanations for this phenomenon have developed.The social comparison explanation holds that group members alter theirinitial opinions to be consistent with the revealed group norm.Alternatively, the persuasive arguments explanation posits that groupmembers modify their initial opinions based on the number of non-redundantarguments presented during group discussions. New members of groups tend to base their actions andinterpret other members' actions on the norms they held as members of othergroups. In theory, government regulation designed to eliminate employmentdiscrimination should have no adverse impacts on business and industry, forin theory discrimination between individuals in relation to hiring,promotion, retention, and compensation would be based only upon performanceor upon performance potential (Jenner, 1994, p. In the everyday world, however, suchassumptions are seldom valid. Managing cultural diversity in work-groups assumes greater importanceas the heterogeneity of the workforce increases (Nemetz & Christensen,1996, pp. Cognitive negotiating tactics are employed in the development ofcompromise solutions in conflict situations. The process of social comparison then is used to perform aselective accentuation of intergroup differences. 463-491). People with similar characteristics and values frequently form intogroups. 11). Journal of Policy Analysis andManagement, 13, 157-162.
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