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ANIMAL COMMUNICATIONS.
Term Paper ID:24415
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Essay Subject:
Examines research into the ability of animals (monkeys, chickens, deer, parrots, apes) to have, develop & transmit thoughts & feelings through sounds.... More...
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8 Pages / 1800 Words
8 sources, 20 Citations,
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Paper Abstract:
Examines research into the ability of animals (monkeys, chickens, deer, parrots, apes) to have, develop & transmit thoughts & feelings through sounds.
Paper Introduction:
Studies of the behavior of social animals have led many scientists to believe that all such animals may be using sophisticated systems of communication that are not yet recognized for what they are. Although animals cannot use language in the human sense, a variety of animals are capable of using sounds, signals, or explicit behavior to exchange information about objects in their natural environment. Scientists are moving closer to accepting the fact that animals communicate with their own species, with other species, and even with human beings.
The simple view of animal communication is that these creatures merely convey evidence of physiological states that are not under their control. For instance, the human action of blinking an eye is different from the human action of winking an
Text of the Paper:
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Studies of the physical structure of animal sounds may one dayresolve the controversy over whether animals can communicate in the humansense. Representation of quantities by apes. Throughout the years, ape names likeWashoe, Kanzi, and Panbanisha have become familiar to the professionalcommunity. Cognizantof this criticism, subsequent studies of semantic alarm calls in vervetmonkeys have been conducted in which the vervets responded to tape recordedplaybacks of alarm calls: "These playbacks elicited the appropriateresponses in most cases" (Griffin, 1992, p. Studies of chickens have likewise shown marked differences incommunication, depending not only on the type of stimulus but also the typeof audience. 111). Savage-Rumbaugh conducted extensive research programs with primates Kanzi andPanbanisha. 168). Animal minds. In P.Slater, J. In D. Chickens exhibit two types of calls: one responds to aerialthreats such as hawks and the other warns of ground predators like dogs orfoxes (Griffin, 1992). and Mitani, J. 9). and Lewin, R. Critics of such experiments claimed that the manipulationof ASL by Washoe and subsequent primates did not constitute language. Theresearcher notes that on certain occasions she asked Panbanisha what shewas thinking (usually when she was engaged in other activities) but thequestion was ignored. Suchan evasive tactic would make the monkeys easy prey for martial eagles,however. Payne, R. Althoughanimals cannot use language in the human sense, a variety of animals arecapable of using sounds, signals, or explicit behavior to exchangeinformation about objects in their natural environment. Studies of the behavior of social animals have led many scientiststo believe that all such animals may be using sophisticated systems ofcommunication that are not yet recognized for what they are. (1988). and Pagel, M. The simple view of animal communication is that these creaturesmerely convey evidence of physiological states that are not under theircontrol. 459). This exchange takes place as a form ofcontest between an established harem holder and a challenger. The primates were able tounderstand human speech at the level of a 2-1/2 year old human child. The monkeys climbedtrees, dove into thick vegetation, or rose on their hind legs in responseto the nature of the perceived danger. The language instinct. Animals, who learnedonly by experience, were inferior to human beings, who possessed theability to learn through a variety of means. Typical guiding behavior involves repetitive churring noises tocatch the person's attention, flying within 1 or 15 feet, exhibiting wingand tail displays, and constant calling. (1992). Pinker, S. The cockerel make frequent alarm calls whenfamiliar males or females are present but this frequency decreases markedlyin the presence of unfamiliar females. Of all animals with language skills, parrots exhibit the mostrecognizable ability to communicate with human beings. Goedeking, and D.Symmes (Eds.), Primate Vocal Communication (pp. One of the clearest examples ofcommunication in the presence of other animals is the alarm signal.Studies of vervet monkeys have uncovered differentiation in alarm callswhich prompts differentiation in response from the audience: "This wouldpresume a degree of control over production of alarm calls" (Marler andMitani, 1988, p. 174). 158). Critics of the ability of the vervet monkey to differentiate dangercalls contend that the evasive strategies of the audience are based oncuing. As the authors of thisstudy concluded: "These newfound skills were remarkably similar in bothtopography and developmental emergence to those observed in young childrenin the early stages of learning to count" (Boysen, 1997, p. Once, however, when Panbanisha appeared lost inthought, Savage-Rumbaugh again posed the question and Panbanisha replied,"Kanzi." The veracity of the answer was corrobated by posing the questionagain, with the same response: "These observations suggest that it ispossible that children and apes think in a reflexive sense, even beforethey are competent language users" (Savage-Rumbaugh and Lewin, 1994, p.259). Butpsychologists who argue for animal consciousness contend that Descartes andhis proponents discredit nonhuman mentality because they perceive thesituation solely through the human lens: "The relatively simple content ofanimal thoughts and subjective feelings is almost certainly relevant to theanimal's own situation rather than to human concerns" (Griffin, 1992, p.19). New York: John Wiley.----------------------- 9 Griffin, D. (July 1997). Animalbehaviorists claim that animals are incapable of conscious thinking thus,using the above example, an animal can blink but not wink its eye. New York:HarperCollins. Savage-Rumbaugh, S. Even recently hatched chicks exhibit a strong tendency tocongregate among chicks of their own color phase: "Chicks that had beenreared with an alien breed, however, did not develop a preference for beingwith strangers" (Honore and Klopfer, 199 , p. 722). A study of cockerels found that these animalsmake more frequent food calls when their favorite foods are presented thanin the presence of non-preferred foods (Griffin, 1992). Rumbaugh, D. Gardner at theUniversity of Nevada, was trained in American Sign Language (ASL). Regan and P.Singer (Eds.), Animal Rights and Human Obligations (pp. The python alarm callprompts the monkeys to rise on their hind legs and survey the ground todetermine the most favorable escape route. Descartes' basic argumentshave been extrapolated by modern psychologists, who argue that animalexperience is related exclusively to the present. Communication is the means bywhich such coordination is accomplished. 163). Chicago: University of ChicagoPress. Critics have concluded,however, that parrots merely mimic words and are incapable of importingmeaning to the sounds they imitate. (1989). Food calling is common among chickens, and differentiation in thisarea has also been observed. The case for animal rights. Because theability to outroar another is based on body weight and strength, theseroaring contests help the deer assess each other's physical condition, avariable that cannot be assessed by visual observation alone (Payne andPagel, 1997). (1995). Marler, P. Rosenblatt, C. As one critic asserts, "Kanzi'slanguage abilities, if one is being charitable, are above those of hiscommon cousins by a just-noticeable difference, but no more" (Pinker, 1995,p. Not only did the chimpanzees acquire thesetwo tasks they also demonstrated a capacity for other numbers-related tasksin which they had not received previous training. The Gardners' communication experiments were conducted usingstringent criteria. The greater honeyguide of Africa is an example of a nonhuman species'initiation of a symbiotic relationship with human beings throughcommunication. Using controlled tests, the chimps exhibited the capacity forsemantics, the meaning of words or symbols. Probably the most convincing evidence for primate acquisition oflanguage skills comes from the studies of Sue Savage-Rumbaugh. 219). Snowdon, and M. Nevertheless, the chickens show a strong tendencytoward semantic screams. So in response to the eagle alarm call the monkeys hide in thickvegetation near a tree trunk or at ground level. The honeyguide is a foraging bird that feeds on insects,and is fond of beeswax and honeycombs. Primate language and cognition: Commonground. Upon hearing the leopardcall vervet monkeys scurry into trees, but since leopards are excellentclimbers, the monkeys know to take refuge on the slenderest branches. 723).Savage-Rumbaugh's claims about Kanzi's language skills have been debunkedby some psychologists as overly ambitious. All social interactions are based on the ability of two or moreindividuals to coordinate their activities. Granted, animals are largely incapable of complex thought. 9). 87). Despite years of research there remain psychologistsfirmly entrenched in both camps. 338). Some African natives come to rely on thehoneyguides to locate bees' nest efficiently: "Very few of the bees' nestsare located where the unaided birds can reach them, so that the guiding,and following, behavior is an effective form of behavioral symbiosis whichhas important benefits for both participants" (Griffin, 1992, p. 12). Since reasoning is not contingent on verbalability, the theory that nonhuman beings have the capacity to reason hasmerit. Guiding may involve a distance ofa few feet or a few miles. The number of foodcalls varied depending on the number of other chickens present, and whetherthese chickens were male or female: "Food-calling cockerels are acutelysensitive to the presence and nature of the audience" (Marler and Mitani,1988, p. and R.A. Thekey to fostering this ability was to teach the chimp, from the earliest agepossible, in a language structured environment: "One in which the apes'caretakers talk to the infant apes as though they understand all that wasbeing said" (Rumbaugh, 1995, p. Regan, T. Animal Behavior, pp. Frequent alarm calls were also madein the presence of young chicks, but not in the presence of bobwhite quails(Griffin, 1992, p. Researcher IrenePepperberg trained a male African gray parrot to use imitations of anextensive English vocabulary that included names, adjectives, and phrasesalbeit to date, no other scientists have been able to replicate hersuccess: "It seems reasonable to conclude that a parrot can learn both tounderstand and to communicate about several simple properties of familiarobjects (color, shape, material) as well as such basic relationships assame or different" (Griffin, 1992, p. A challenger who is unable tooutroar a harem holder usually acknowledges defeat by leaving. Over athree-year period, Washoe acquired the ability to use and respond to morethan eighty-five signs. Roaringencounters can last more than half an hour. The researchers came to thisconclusion after being stifled in their attempts to teach languageinstruction to Matata, the mother of Kanzi. The researchers theorized thatprimates raised in the feral community, although skilled in the ways of thewild, lack the ability to acquire language: "It was as though her[Matata's] cognitive structure had been fully committed to topicsassociated with life in the forest" (Rumbaugh, 1995, p. Todt, P. Many psychologists believed a breakthrough in animalmentation studies had occurred: "The implications of the discovery thatchimpanzees and other Great Apes could communicate in even a rudimentaryform of language were truly shattering to the deep-seated faith in languageas a unique human attribute separating humanity from the beasts" (Griffin,1992, p. Theprimates were merely using mimicking hand behavior common to theircounterparts in the wild: "The chimps were relying heavily on the gesturesin their natural repertoire, rather than learning true arbitrary ASL signs"(Pinker, 1995, p. 726-73 . Scientists aremoving closer to accepting the fact that animals communicate with their ownspecies, with other species, and even with human beings. 3-14). 1 9-119. In T. (1994). The fleeing monkeys adapt their behavior to the caller. Self-recognition is oneof the abilities by which psychologists define consciousness. The behavior of chickens argues for a degree of self-awareness inthis species. 1 5-114).Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Variation also was observed based on whether the chickenspresent were familiar or unfamiliar to the cockerel. The alarm calls of cockerel are conditioned by the presence ofcertain audience types. For instance, the human action of blinking an eye is differentfrom the human action of winking an eye. (1997). References Boysen, S. Present knowledge indicates thatonly humans use distinct sounds as symbols, to express abstract concepts,rather than as simple reactions to or indications of concrete objects.However, humans do not always think and reason using verbal language; oftenvisual images replace words. Washoe, a chimpanzee owned by B.T. Although animals lack many of the intellectual abilities of humanbeings, it is the basic similarity between the two that forms the crucialissue. But the bird is unable to openbees' nests on its own, so it enlists the aid of humans by guiding them tothe nests. Kanzi: The ape at thebrink of the human mind. Evenprimates, mammals closely related in ancestry and morphology to humans,could never attain the language competency of human beings. 341.) Research involving Panbanisha, another of Savage-Rumbaugh's primates,indicated the ability of these animals for reflective thought. Disbelief in the capacity of animals to communicate thoughts andfeelings is based on arguments put forth by French philosopher Descartes inthe mid-16 s. One such study involved chimpanzees, which weregiven two simple matching tasks involving the association of a collectionof candies with either a pattern of markers on a placard or thecorresponding Arabic numeral. (Fall 1995). The vervet monkey gives three distinct calls to distinguish amongleopard, martial eagle, and python predators. Critics of the animal behaviorist point of view contend that evidenceof animal thinking is apparent by observation of certain exchanges ofsignals between two or more animals. The foundation of this basic similarity is that both human andnonhuman creatures are each "the experiencing subject of a life," the valueof which can be communicated (Regan, 1989, p. Descartes likened animals to machines because nonhumancreatures lacked the ability to reason and think. The investigation of counting and numerical skills in primates hasled some researchers to conclude that nonhuman animals are capable ofcomparative cognition. Milinski (Eds.) Advances in theStudy of Behavior, Vol 26 (pp. Vocal communication in primatesand birds: parallels and contrasts. Why do animals repeatdisplays? The roaring of red deer also communicates specific informationbetween caller and recipient. The experimental playback of animalvocal communication has allowed scientists to perform deeper analyses ofanimal behavior: "The vocal playback technique is a sensitive method forasking penetrating questions about the communicative behavior of [animals,]questions that would be difficult to pose by other experimental approaches"(Marler and Mitani, 1988, p. 435-462). Some variability is exhibited in these callsbecause, for instance, a hawk at close range might present the same dangeras a ground predator. Much debate surrounds the issue of primates and their ability toacquire language. Social Research, pp. The human blink is the result ofa physiological process or reaction to some physical stimulus whereas theeye wink is an intentional signal meant to convey a purpose.
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