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SOCIOECONOMICS IN SOUTH KOREA & VIETNAM.
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Comparative analysis of social & economic development, govt. & politics, role of United Nations, globalization, debt, industrial policy, resources, human rights.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Comparative analysis of social & economic development, govt. & politics, role of United Nations, globalization, debt, industrial policy, resources, human rights.
Paper Introduction:
SOCIAL & ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA [SOUTH] & VIETNAM: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
This research examines social and economic development in both the Republic of Korea [South Korea], hereinafter in this research referred to a “Korea,” and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, hereinafter in this research referred to as “Vietnam.” As a part of this research, human rights issues in the two countries are considered separately from the discussions of social and economic development.
SOCIAL & ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Social development and economic development in Korea and Vietnam are addressed in this section. The two aspects of development are considered separately.
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"The Society and Its Environment." In Cima, R. Leases for development in Vietnam's offshore oilreserves have already been signed with 1 non American oil companies-including companies from Japan. "Human Capital, Fertility, and Economic Growth." Journal of Political Economy 98, Pt. The two aspects of development are consideredseparately. L. Health care has been amuch more successful area for Vietnam. Social & Economic Development: Summary of Findings The economic development goals of Korea and Vietnam differ in relationto the development status of the two countries. Thegovernment also has sought to improve the economic welfare of all citizens. The two reached quite differentconclusions on the issue. In raising the standard of living for its citizens, Vietnam still isstruggling. "Korean Women: Playing Catch-Up." Business Korea 13 (April 1996): 9.Schwarz, A. W. Washington: United States Army, 1992, 135-196.Mi-young, A. Communist leaders in Vietnam have elevated economic growthto top priority. Washington: United States Army, 1992, 197-266.Shin, J. Suchimprovement, while painfully slow, is more than is occurring in Vietnam.These assessments, however, are made within a Western perspective ofpolitical values. For this reason, the surest means to democracy inVietnam, oddly enough, seems to be the Communist Party" (Lee 64). The government also has sought to improve the economic welfare ofall citizens.Goal Attainment A middle-class has emerged in Korea as the country has developedrapidly since the end of the Korean War (Seekins 96). Both labor dissidents and political dissidents are suppressedin Korea ("Global Economy" 16; "National Insecurity" 38). In Korea, however, dissidents perceive that thegovernment and the corporations are not acting from a collectivistapproach, but rather are acting primarily in their own interests. Korea labor Law." Journal of Commerce and Commercial 411 (24 January 1997): 1A-2A."Recent Progress on POW/MIA Issues." US Department of State Dispatch 2 (11 November 1991): 83 -832.Richards, R. "Listen Up: UN Urges Vietnam to Rethink Poverty Spending." Far Eastern Economic Review 158 (16 November 1995): 99.Seekins, D. Thetheoretical justification for the assumed relationship between earnings andeducational attainment is based on the concept of differential pricing foreducational attainment. The ranks of industrial workers also have grown rapidly.Women in Korea, however, continue to be denied equal opportunity inemployment (Richards 9). This point assumes significant proportionswhen Western governments, organizations, and individuals attempt to imposetheir own ethnocentric perspectives on Eastern societies (Kausikan 24). HUMAN RIGHTS ISSUES Human rights issues in Korea and Vietnam are compared in this section. For the most part, such issues appear to be ofsecondary importance to the fact that the United States still has not facedthe fact that it was defeated in the Second Vietnam War.Effects of Globalization Globalization has played a major role in the economic development ofKorea. M. Vietnam already "has clamped down on the Wild West atmosphere thatreigned in the first years of doi moi, or renovation .... The Statesman's Year-Book, 1997-1998. When a drug corruptionscandal erupted in Vietnam in 1997, as an example, the problem was blamedon the concept and behavior of individualism. The country is served by almost 5 , physicians and by almost7, doctors of oriental medicine. Thecollectivist approach to societal functioning wherein the welfare of thewhole is considered to be supreme to the rights of the individual is strongin both Vietnam and Korea. M., and Shaw, W. Exportemphasis, however, is an integral component of the country's industrialpolicy. The assumption of a relationship between human capital and economicgrowth is based on observations that indicate that growth in investment inschooling grow much more rapidly than gross investment in physical capital,and that growth in years of schooling explains approximately 25 percent ingrowth in per capita income in Korea (Becker and Murphy S13). From an Asian perspective, human rights issues are more relevant inKorea than in Vietnam. In the decades of the 198 s and 199 s, Korea's industrialpolicy has relied heavily on the diffusion model, whereas in the past ithad relied on the human capital model (Metraux 157-158). The growing laborstrife in Korea is a threat to its continued economic progress. "East Asia's Not-Yet-Emerging Markets." Institutional Investor 27 (May 1993): 71-76.Hughes, H. From a Western perspective, such may be the case. In response, the Vietnamese government adjusted, tosome extent, the distribution of United Nations aid.Effects of Globalization Korea has attempted to gain recognition and acceptance in a globalcontext. The professional andmanagerial classes in Korea are relevant in the contemporary period, as arebusiness owners. (Eds.). Although mostnations have accepted the United Nations Universal Declaration on HumanRights, the declaration is not tightly constructed, and, thus, is subjectto different interpretations. Foreign Policy 92 (Fall 1993): 42- 51.Niblett, R. Neier (47), however, appears to be able to viewhuman rights only from a rigid Western ethnocentric perspective thattolerates no deviation from Western, particularly American, ideas of whatis acceptable behavior by government. The major human rights abuse in Korea is the suppression ofdissidents. The largestshift is away from agriculture, in terms of both GDP and labor force.Labor remains disproportionately heavy in agriculture, with 36 percent ofthe labor force accounting for only 13 percent of the GDP. Norton & Company, 1997.Freeman, N. The industrialsector recorded the greatest growth in terms of both GDP and labor forceuse. "The Society and Its Environment." In Savada, A. S., and Murphy, K. Neier (45) rejects this argument, pointing to thecapitalist barons of Hong Kong as examples of individualists in Asiansocieties. Neier's arguments are somewhat shallow and appear to reject theconcept that differing societal values may be equally valid. Thecountry, however, has, since the end of the Korean War, been racked withone governmental scandal after another. The application of international lawin controversial issues and issues that are perceived to impinge onnational sovereignty, however, has proved to be notably ineffective(Barnaby 78). We view it as a nationwith immense potential as a partner in trade and diplomacy" (Quoted in "ACountry" 22). The extent of freedomfor religious groups to function tends to be tied to the willingness ofsuch groups to acknowledge the supremacy of the socialist government in thecountry (Schwarz 33). London: Doubleday Books, 1992.Becker, G. Korea likely will continueto develop more rapidly than will Vietnam. Vietnam: A Country Study. In relation to otherworkers in these two countries, however, those workers engaged inproduction for Western corporations fare just as well. S. Effects of Globalization Human rights activists contend that Western corporations who contractfor production in Korea and Vietnam exploit workers in those two countries. Kausikan (26) does not deny that non-Asians have a legitimate role toplay in the pursuit of human rights protection in Asian societies. "Asia's Different Standard." Foreign Policy 92 (Fall 1993): 24- 41."Korea." International Financial Statistics (March 1995): 24 -244.Kraar, L. Korea's industrial policy provides several incentives for exportmanufacture. The United States would use its vetopower to block any United Nations effort in Korea, while there have been nodemands for action from within Vietnam; demands have been made only by theSouth Vietnamese who fled to the United States following the loss of thewar. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. These two meetingsrepresented the first bilateral meetings at the Secretary level between theUnited States and Vietnam since the end of the Vietnam War. South Korea: A Country Study. ... As many of your countrymen haveurged, we look on Vietnam as a country, not a war. Educationally, Vietnam has made gains, however, much of the populationoutside of the major cities continues to be slow to participate fully inthe nation's educational system (Shinn 13 -131). "Why Have East Asian Countries Led Economic Development?" Economic Record 71 (March 1995): 88-1 4.Hunter, B. (Ed.). Neier (42) contends that the Universal Declaration represents andinternational consensus on human rights. As a more developedcountry, Korea's economic development goals are more ambitious than arethose of Vietnam. A., Jr. "OECD Assails S. Washington: United States Army, 1993, 141-186.Cummins, B. Growth has continued in the 199 s, although some of Korea'smajor corporations have been forced to near bankruptcy (Shin 29). "Vietnamese young peopleseem to pay surprisingly little attention to politics. Social and economic development goals are being attained more quicklyand more effectively in Korea than in Vietnam. Rioting Strikers in South Korea, France, Argentina, and Elsewhere Are Not A Sign That 'Globalization' Is A disaster." Economist 342 (18 January 1997): 16-17.Grant, J. Korea's external debt places heavy pressure on the country's economicmanagers to retain the emphasis on exports. "The Economy." In Cima, R. Vietnam also has soughtto improve the economic welfare of the nation's citizenry.Goal Attainment Unlike the Japanese, Korea's major industrial firms have tended toexploit the country's workers, as opposed to providing them with the long-term security and acceptance found in the Japanese model (Kraar 136). From a Western perspective, serious human rightsissues exist in both countries. Among these incentives are tax reductions, ready access tocredit, subsidized interest rates, foreign loan guarantees, and directsubsidies. While globalization has not hadany major effects on the economic development Vietnam, however,globalization has proved to be a major driver in the economic developmentof Korea. Vietnam'spremier natural resource is its undeveloped petroleum reserve which liesunder the country's offshore waters. The United Nations found that,while 51 percent of the population of Vietnam exist on income levels thatare below the poverty line and that approximately 9 percent of the personsreside in the countryside, approximately one-half of the United Nations aidto Vietnam goes to the nation's two wealthiest cities-Hanoi and Ho Chi MinhCity (Schwarz 99). (Eds.). Vietnam is only beginning to emerge from a central planning straightjacket (Hughes 89). Annual per capita income in Vietnam is only US$22 (Niblett 75). The underlyingassumption of this model is that, as economic development depends onadvances in technological and scientific knowledge, development presumablydepends on the accumulation of human capital. Washington: United States Army, 1993, 91- 143.Sohn, Y-J. Kausikan (27) argues further that this approach tends to forceWestern governments from the adoption of more moderate policies toward suchdifferences between societies, and that, in an era of growing Asianstrength, this approach may well lead to a hardening of Western and Easternpositions on human rights. Economic development is considered within the contexts of goals,goal attainment, the role of the United Nations, and the effects ofglobalization.Goals Major economic goals of the Korean government are to continue theimprovement in the economic welfare of the nation's citizens, to make thenation self-sufficient economically, and to raise Korea to the status of anindustrial (developed) nation (Metraux 143). This narrow consensus, however, does not extend to capitalpunishment, detention without trial, and some curbs on press freedom(Kausikan 25). When President Clinton announced the normalization of relationsbetween the United States and Vietnam, however, he insisted that Vietnammust make big changes-such as revising the country's economic and legalsystems, if the country wanted to expand commercial ties with the UnitedStates. South Korea: A Country Study. "Going Forth to Multiply: If Seoul Has Its Way, South Korean eyes Will Be Turned firmly on the Outside World for Opportunity." Asian Business (Hong Kong) 31 (June 1995): 28-3 ."National Insecurity." Economist 331 (14 May 1994): 38.Neier, A. New York: Macmillan Press, 1997.Kamm, H. J. Thisreform is the only path to prosperity for the Vietnamese people, andprobably the quickest path to a Vietnamese government that is democratic athome and forthright in its dealings with the rest of the world" (Lee 65). Political human rights are slowly improving in Korea. "Vietnamese Reforms run into heavy Weather." Financial Times 9 June 1997, 5.Hirsch, M. Social & Economic Development in the Republic of Korea [South] & Vietnam: A Comparative Analysis INTRODUCTION This research examines social and economic development in both theRepublic of Korea [South Korea], hereinafter in this research referred to a"Korea," and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, hereinafter in thisresearch referred to as "Vietnam." As a part of this research, humanrights issues in the two countries are considered separately from thediscussions of social and economic development. Increased prosperity for workers has also led toa greater demand for domestic consumption, which has, in turn, caused somemanufacturers to devote increased emphasis to the domestic Korean market.The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (1A) has severelycriticized the Korean government for its labor laws and labor policies. In such asituation, almost any level of growth appears to be large in percentageterms. Domestically, the government of Vietnam cracks-down hard on the "evilsof individualism" ("Nothing Is Really Private" 45). Vietnam: A Country Study. More often, however, the result has been adrive for higher productivity through a move away from labor-intensivemanufacturing practices. Many ordinary citizens also oppose such change,however, on the grounds that they fought wars for freedom, independence,and social justice, not money (Kamm 221).Role of United Nations The United Nations has played a significant role in the economicdevelopment of Vietnam. South Korea: A Country Study. But they were not demanding more democracy but betterliving conditions. The services sector recorded moremoderate growth, and, in the 199 s, 37 percent of the labor force accountedfor 45 percent of the GDP. (Ed.). Economic Development The economic development of Korea and Vietnam are compared in thissection. Washington: United States Army, 1992, 67-134.Shaw, W. J. While dissidence is strong in Korea, dissatisfactionwith the political environment is far from being widespread. "Hanbo's Legacy." Far Eastern Economic Review 16 (27 March 1997): 29.Shinn, R-S. (Ed.). The StateDepartment added that the pace and scope of the normalization process alsowould be affected directly by the seriousness with which Vietnam cooperatedon the POW/MIA issue. Even with more ambitious goals, however, Korea has madefar more progress toward the attainment of its economic goals than hasVietnam. In many instances, international relations policies are aimed by agovernment at a domestic audience, the effect upon whom is considered to bemore important than any international goals which may be attained.Accounting for the prisoners of war (POWs) and personnel missing in action(MIAs), a centerpiece of United States policy toward Vietnam, is an exampleof such a policy that is directed primarily at a domestic constituency inthe United States for purely domestic political purposes ("A Country" 21).It is a gullible person indeed who believes that any United Statesadministration-Republican or Democrat-since 1975 has had an overridinginterest in this issue on its own merits. Human Rights Issues: Summary of Findings Serious human rights issues exist in both Korea and Vietnam when suchissues are viewed from a Western perspective. With respect to petroleum resources, Vietnam has extensiverequirements for the participation of foreign-based companies in itseconomic redevelopment ("Asia/Pacific" 5 -53). The country, however, has surpassed India in the grossdomestic product per capita measure ("Make Money, Not War" S4).Role of United Nations The United Nations has not played a meaningful role in the socialdevelopment of Korea. A major area of concern for Korea is external debt. Students in severalcolleges in Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi have organized some small protestsin recent years. "Asia's Unacceptable Standard. Social development is considered within the contexts of goals,goal attainment, the role of the United Nations, and the effects ofglobalization.Goals Important social goals of successive Korean government have been toextent meaningful education to all citizens of the country and to providehigh standards of health care for all citizens (Seekins 97, 128). "Government and Politics." In Savada, A. When these same issues areviewed from an Asian perspective, however, the only serious human rightsissues in the two countries are in Korea, where a fairly large minorityperceive that governments and corporations are acting in their owninterests, as opposed to acting in the collective interests. Issues Korea is a republic with a democratically elected government. The human rights issue is a case in point. R. Asian and Western perceptions of humans rights are notparallel. World Development Report. Vietnam posted industrial growth of 14 percent in 1996 and exportgrowth of 3 percent (Freeman 36). This growth is impressive; however, onereason that the growth levels are so high is that the base levels ofindustrial production and exports in Vietnam are so low. During the decade of the 198 s, South Korea emerged as a middle-industrial power. The country has approximately75, physicians-many more than are found in Korea, although the Vietnampopulation also is much greater than that of Korea (Hunter 1598). "Private-Enterprise Communism." Society 32 (January-February 1995): 64-68."Make Money, Not War." Economist 336 (8 July 1995): S3-S4.Metraux, D. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION This research examined social and economic development in both Koreaand the Vietnam. Vietnam also restricts religious activity to a far greater extent thanthat which occurs in Korea (Schwarz 33; Cummins 83). Other developmental requirements totalan equal amount. The Koreangovernment invokes the National Security Law at any time it feelsthreatened politically (Ching 4 ). By the Summer of 1995, relations had so improved between the UnitedState and Vietnam that then Secretary of State Warren Christopher statedthat: "Our peoples are still scarred by the war ... The United Nations has notplayed a major role in the social development of either Korea or Vietnam.Similarly, globalization has not had major effects on the socialdevelopment in either Korea or Vietnam. but we have now reacheda time of promise and of change. By contrast, Vietnam has beenattempting to rebuild its industrial sector in the decades since the end ofthe Second Vietnamese War and to establish a role for the nation in theinternational economy (Cosslett and Shaw 143-144). "Not So Hectic Hanoi." Banker 147 (January 1997): 36-38."Global Economy, Local Mayhem? By 1991, the United States had established a POW/MIA office in Hanoi,with the staff working full time on that issue ("Recent Progress" 83 ).Secretary of State Baker met with then Vietnamese Foreign Minister NguyenCo Thach in New York in September 199 and with newly appointed ForeignMinister Nguyen Manh Cam in Paris in October 199 . In countries like Vietnam, political democracy may be aluxury that takes root far more securely in a prosperous economy than in animpoverished one. The issues are identified and discussed, the status of the issues in thetwo countries is assessed, the role of the United Nations in relation tohuman rights issues in the two countries is explained, and the effects ofglobalization on human rights in Korea and Vietnam are considered. Through international law, transnational agreementshave been reached in some uncontroversial areas, such astelecommunications, mail, health, weather forecasting, air transportation,and sea transportation (Barnaby 77). New York: W. Vietnam receives aid throughthe United Nations Development Program. This industrial policy must be continually refined, as some of themajor industrial countries targeted for Korea's exports adjust, at least tosome extent, to a so-called post-industrial environment. Oneconsequence of this approach has been the development in Korea ofacrimonious relations between labor and management. Total grossexternal liabilities for Korea at the end of 1988 approximated US$43billion. Korea's Place in the Sun. As a part of this research, human rights issues in thetwo countries were considered separately from the discussions of social andeconomic development. Korea has relied heavily on the development of human capital througheducation. He doescontend, however, that most international focusing on human rights is basedin a Western ethnocentric perspective that makes no effort to recognizelegitimate differences in societal values between Western and Easterncountries. M., and Shaw, W. In this approach, the concept of human capital is substitutedfor a raw population variable (Becker and Murphy S13). "The Balance of Trade." Management Today (December 1995): 74- 77."Nothing Is Really Private in Vietnam." Economist 343 (17 May 1997): 45-46.Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. WORKS CITED"A Country, Not A War." Economist, 336 (12 August 1995): 21-22."Asia/Pacific Ethylene Capacity to More Than Double By 2 ." Oil and Gas Journal 93 (8 May 1995): 5 -53.Barnaby, F. The industrial growth was essential to supportthe country's industrial policy emphasizing the export of manufacturedproducts (World Bank 247) Per capita gross domestic product reachedUS$8,843 in 1994 (Hunter 795). The nation generally has failed in this effort, however, becauseof the unwillingness of the Korean government to open itself to publicscrutiny (Sohn 21).Social Development: Summary of Findings The social development goals of Korea and Vietnam are not remarkablydifferent. It's becomingvery tightly regulated and overbureaucratized" (Hirsch 72). In the 199 s, the 27 percent of the labor force used in industry wasresponsible for 42 percent of the GDP. Thus,dissidence is much stronger in Korea than in Vietnam. M., and Shaw, W. In this model,human capital is defined as embodied knowledge and skills. Of that amount, 57.2 percent represented public debt. Dragon Ascending. Economic reform in Vietnam continues to encounter strong opposition.Many members of the nation's political elite oppose any shift away fromsocialism (Grant 5). Korea, however, has made far more progress toward theattainment of these goals than has Vietnam. A secondimportant social goal of the Vietnamese government has been to makeeducation more relevant to the country's economic and social needs (Shinn129). In Vietnam meanwhile, poor people are more interested in being able topurchase reliable products in the marketplace than in being able to votefor unreliable politicians at the polls (Lee 64). M. (Ed.). In fact, according to Kausikan (25) the majority of thepopulation in many Asian societies approve of such actions because theyvalue order and good government more so than the Western ethos ofindividualism. In addition to these developmental requirements, Vietnamis also desirous of developing its natural resource base. The major reason for the minor role played by theUnited Nations in this context has been the opposition of the United Statesof any international aid to Vietnam until issues deemed important to theUnited States are settled. A major reason for the minor role for the UnitedNations within this context is that the United States uses its veto powerin the United Nations to block any action that might place pressure on theKorean government. "Soul-Searching in Seoul: Despite Progress on Human rights, Problems Remain." Far Eastern Economic Review 157 (22 September 1994): 4 .Cosslett, T. By comparison, in Vietnam, the government has placed a high priority onthe assimilation of the populations of the northern and southern sectionsof the country into a single, unified citizenry (Shinn 1 9). This development has causedsome Korean manufacturers to consider a shift of production from Korea tolower labor cost countries. "Korean government's Efforts for Globalization in Vain." Business Korea 13 (June 1996): 21-22.World Bank. In yet another context, however, globalization hasprovided Korea's major corporations with opportunities to become majorplayers on the global scene (Mi-young 28). Although the Korean government cooperates with industry in efforts tokeep labor unions as ineffective as is possible, wage levels and employeebenefits increased significantly in the 198 s. "The Economy." In Savada, A. "TheVietnamese Communists are intent on promoting free-market reform. Neier's (47) approach is unlikely tosucceed. Kausikan (24) by contrast, holdsthat the Universal Declaration represents a consensus that is quite narrowin scope that includes opposition to genocide, murder, torture, andslavery. Korea also has performed well in relation to public health (Hunter8 ). Vietnam's political regime remains closed, undemocratic, andinsensitive to Western concern over basic human rights (Lee 64). Social Development The social development of Korea and Vietnam are compared in thissection. Vietnam's economy has "a long way to go before it is afull-fledged private-enterprise system, but the movement toward the marketis unmistakable. Increasingcentral government deficits, together with the external debt problem,indicate that the country will continue to rely heavily on high taxation inthe 1996-1999 time period, and that any faltering in the level of exportswill likely prove to be devastating. Industrialization is developing at a rapid pace in Korea. Secretary Christopher's also indicated that the human rights issuewould play an important role in the normalization of relations between theUnited States and Vietnam ("A Country" 22). Real per capita gross national product (GNP) in Korea grew at anaverage annual rate of 9.8 percent during the 198 s ("Korea" 24 -244).Although this rate of growth was higher than that recorded in the 197 s, itis of even greater significance because it proceeded from a much higherbase point. Each of the countries addressed in thiscurrent research are Asian countries; however, the assessment of the stateof human rights in these two countries is being made by a Westerner in theUnited States. Higher levels of formal educational attainment areheld to increase the value of the human capital possessed and offered bythe individual. "Asia's Hot New Growth Triangle." Fortune 126 (5 October 1992): 136-136, 191.Lee, D. Infrastructure requirementsalone total more than $2 billion. The Gaia Peace Atlas 2nd ed. By comparison, the United Nations has attempted to pressure theVietnamese government on social development. These reserves are thought to be bothextensive and rich. (Eds.). In one context, globalization has been the driving force inshifting production from more developed industrial economies to industrialoperations in Korea. Status of Issues Any assessment of human rights tends to be slanted according to theperspective of the assessor. We view Vietnam as the product of its ownhistory and the master of its own destiny. The United Nations has not played a major role in the economicdevelopment of either Korea or Vietnam. New York: Arcade Publishing, Inc., 1996.Kausikan, B. As Kausikan(26) pointed-out, many Asian populations value order and stability far morethan they value the right to act on individual convictions. Bilahari Kausikan (24-41) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ofSingapore and Aryeh Neier (42-41), executive director of the Western-basedHuman Rights Watch organization, discussed these differing perspectives ina way that provides a useful framework for the consideration of the stateof human rights in Korea and Vietnam. SOCIAL & ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Social development and economic development in Korea and Vietnam areaddressed in this section. In the face of rising domesticexpectations, this task becomes more difficult politically. "Arrested Development: Crackdown At Home Follows Opening Abroad." Far Eastern Economic Review 158 (7 September 1995): 33-34.Schwarz, A. The conduct of international relations is also related tointernational law. Since 1986, when the Vietnamese Communists beganimplementing their economic restructuring (known as doi moi), Hanoi hasabolished most trade restrictions, decontrolled export and import prices,allowed market forces to play a larger role in determining the foreign-exchange rate, and taken steps toward privatizing production activity" (Lee66). These political scandals, however,have not impeded the country's social and economic development (Shaw 226). In the structure employed by the World Bank, Korea isgrouped in the upper middle income sub-classification of the middle-incomeeconomies classification, along with such countries as Argentina, Brazil,Greece, Hong Kong, Mexico, Singapore, South Africa, and 16 others (WorldBank 231). Role of United Nations The United Nations has not played a major role with respect to humanrights in either Korea or Vietnam. 2 (199 ): S12-S37.Ching, F.
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