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"BRIEF HISTORY OF AMER. SPORTS, A" (ELLIOTT GORN & WARREN GOLDSTEIN).
Term Paper ID:24688
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Essay Subject:
Critical review of work on sports as symbol of promises & deceptions of Amer. Dream, focusing on differences between women & men in sports.... More...
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7 Pages / 1575 Words
1 sources, 15 Citations,
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Paper Abstract:
Critical review of work on sports as symbol of promises & deceptions of Amer. Dream, focusing on differences between women & men in sports.
Paper Introduction:
Elliott J. Gorn and Warren Goldstein, in A Brief History of American Sports, explore not only the historical evolution of sports from the colonial days through the early 1990s, but just as importantly "the entanglements of sports with life, and of how confused the real accomplishments of players on the field become with American culture's giddy dreams" (xii). The underlying argument of the book is that sports have come to represent the American Dream itself, in terms of both that Dream's promises and its deceptions. This study will provide a brief overview of the book and will then focus on American sports as they relate to gender.
Although the book is thoroughly documented and deals in some detail with American sports history, it "is by no means a comprehensive survey" of that history, but focuses instead on the
Text of the Paper:
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. . . . Just as sports were used to define what the female gender was and wasnot, or should be and should not be, so did they serve to define the malegender. One of the most telling examples of sports' reflection of socialreality is the authors' exploration of gender. Sports today is certainly among the mostfundamental of national concerns, for better or worse. . Gorn and Warren Goldstein, in A Brief History of AmericanSports, explore not only the historical evolution of sports from thecolonial days through the early 199 s, but just as importantly "theentanglements of sports with life, and of how confused the realaccomplishments of players on the field become with American culture'sgiddy dreams" (xii). . The underlying argument of the book is that sportshave come to represent the American Dream itself, in terms of both thatDream's promises and its deceptions. The authors dohighlight a number of the more negative aspects of sports, including"racial and class prejudice, . Although women in the later years of the nineteenth century "foundmore numerous athletic outlets than ever before," that era "also witnessedrenewed warnings that athletic women trod on dangerous ground."Specifically, Female sports raised the fear of women getting beyond men's control; athletic women symbolized the physical competence that domestic ideology, with its emphasis on chasteness and delicacy, was at pains to deny (1 2). Gorn and Goldstein choose carefully in analyzing importantissues related to the evolution of sports: battles between religious folk and non-believers over recreational practices; racial prejudice and integration in sports; the class origins of football, baseball, boxing, and basketball; the entry of women into sports; the relationship of sports to masculinity and femininity; the playground movement, educational institutions, and sports; television, money, drugs and the culture of consumption (xiii). After World War I,some companies, trying to weaken unions, made "efforts to providerecreational activities" for the workers, and, "as a result, women'sbaseball gained more sponsors then ever before" (2 1). By the late nineteenth century, sports were intimately tied to the very definition of American manhood. Although women increasingly took part in such genteel sports asbicycling, croquet, ice skating and golf, professional sports and big-time amateur athletics were male preserves. be heard." For example, one woman doctor "wrote thatathletic women strengthened their muscles at a cost to their . Sport is shown to serve as a fairly accurate mirror of the stateof society, perhaps most importantly in terms of race, class, and genderrelations. However, in every case--in tennis, golf, track,swimming--the aforementioned restrictions have held true: no female teamshave captured the national imagination, and individual female success islimited to non-contact sports. The woman belonged not on thesports field, rarely even in the stands, but rather at home doing domesticchores. Title IX essentially, at least in the eyes of the law, brought girls'athletic programs in schools, "from elementary grades through colleges anduniversities," up to the level of boys' programs. . One explanation ofthe lack of women's sports and women athletes, relative to men, is thatgirls are deprived of the training and opportunities in sports which aregranted to boys in the educational setting. Their political high- water mark was reached in 1972, with passage of . A Brief History of AmericanSports. . . . transcendence, the sense of limitless possibility. . . . Arousing deep longings for beauty, for awe, for shared humanity, such moments give is glimpses of a better world and nourish our hopes for much that is noble in humankind (254). Whether one agrees or not with the authors' rather romanticconclusion, the fact remains that they have presented a compelling portraitof the evolving historical significance of sports in American society andculture. . Importantly, considering that women were notgiven the right to vote until the twentieth century, after even freed maleslaves, the authors barely mention women at all in the first half of thebook. The authors connect an increase in women's participation in sports inthe twentieth century with labor and economic issues. The first meaningful mention of women in the book has to do with acall, from "the most influential spokesperson for the cult of domesticity,"for "young ladies" to get plenty of exercise so they could be strongsupport to the men and children in the home (84). . Although the book is thoroughly documented and deals in some detailwith American sports history, it "is by no means a comprehensive survey" ofthat history, but focuses instead on the points where the changes in sportsand in other important segments of society (economics, class, race, gender)have coincided. Sport, like other national concerns (politics, economics,professional fields), was a man's game. .reproductive systems" (132). Title IX of the federal Education Amendments (2 4-2 5). broke out of the stifling Victorian role of wife and mother for a more active life; yet the emphasis on wealth and fashion in the country-club setting threatened to reduce women themselves to the status of baubles (135). The problem is that the great bulk of those who supportsports are men, so that women's sports must appeal to men as well as towomen in order to succeed. Again, this is in part a result of socialimperatives. Perhaps most important of all, and representing the real and symbolic power of male sports on nearly every coeducational campus, football and, to a lesser extent, men's basketball reign supreme (2 6). The reverse is not true--men's sports do notneed to skew their appeal to reach women in order to succeed, althoughmajor men's sports (especially basketball and baseball, less so in the caseof football) do have substantial women's followings. . violence and sexism . Girls are not encouraged to play football, and are in factdiscouraged from such play because of its dangers and because of theperception, right or wrong, that girls cannot play football. Sports is shown to be areliable indicator of acceptable gender roles at any time in the evolutionof the society and sports. Women ofthe non-elite classes were excluded. In recent decades, the legal advances of women in sports havecoincided with legal advances in other areas of society. In reality, "few schoolshave genuinely equivalent programs (there is still no female counterpart tofootball as the premier high-school and college sport)" (2 5). Even a girlwho is an excellent football player cannot realistically expect to make theboys' high school or college football team, and has no hope of making aliving in professional football. . However, women'sprofessional baseball enjoyed only a decade of solid success or popularity,during and after World War II, fading away as softball gained advocates(2 2). corruptions ofcommercialization." Nevertheless, Gorn and Goldstein conclude that sportsremains a positive force for the American people, giving us moments of . New York: Hill and Wang, 1993.----------------------- 8 Work CitedGorn, Elliott J., and Warren Goldstein. There women played baseballand basketball, but still "the old Victorian association of femininity withdelicacy could . However, it is still tooearly to tell if those efforts will sustain themselves either financiallyor popularly. Gorn and Goldstein write that, unlike with men's sports, women'ssports have been marked not by great teams but by great individualathletes. Women did enjoy greater opportunity to participate in organizedsports primarily at the more elite colleges. Even where women did increasingly participate in sports--in colleges,athletic clubs, country clubs--a clear class distinction remained. . This study will provide a briefoverview of the book and will then focus on American sports as they relateto gender. They cover, for example,the relationship between sports and morality, a relationship which oftenportrays sport as "playground of God and the Devil" (251). Accordingly, steps have beentaken to correct this disadvantage: In the last generation, women, in their struggle to gain equality in the sporting world, have not only contended with cultural prejudice but also grappled directly with sexual discrimination in education and employment. The world of sports and of public relations--both overwhelmingly controlled by men--preferred individual women to women in groups (2 2). The authors argue, essentially, that there is no important aspect ofAmerican society and culture which is not affected by the evolution ofsports, and which in turn affects that evolution. . A number of individual female athletes have succeeded in fascinatingthe nation as they found physical and financial success in their individualpursuits, including Babe Didrikson, Chris Evert, and even the proud lesbianMartina Navratilova. , [and] the . The values so often attributed to sports--competitiveness, aggressiveness, the will to win, discipline--were male values in a capitalist society (113). Gorn and Goldstein wrote their book beforethe emergence of a number of women boxers and women's professionalbasketball, both with the support of television . .. Through theexploration of major sporting events and milestones, the authors show thatthe significance of sports has increased and intensified through the 35 years covered by the book. For example, in the 192 s and 193 s, as women athletic heroes burst into the public arena, it was the stars of individual, non-contact sports that rose to prominence. . . the hypocrisy of the amateur ideal, . Elliott J. Gorn and Goldstein also note the double-edged sword of Title IX evenin cases where it is in fact implemented. . Even elite women were seen not asliberated beings but as symbols of their class: Women . Primarily male coaches of girls'sports in school are made increasingly aware of discrimination againstgirls and fight for equal facilities, funding, equipment, etc., but theirvery presence as coaches weakens females' control over their own destiniesin sports: So if by identifying with females, male coaches have become feminists of a sort, women's athletics are now less controlled by women than they used to be. In a societywhose sports are controlled by men, the full implementation of Title IX inthe near future is unlikely. . . Sports in America will continue to be dominated by men as long aseconomics dictate reality, for the sports which draw viewers andadvertising are those which feature men, and not women, for better orworse.
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