|
| |
VIOLENCE AT SPORTING EVENTS.
Term Paper ID:25431
|
|
|
Essay Subject:
Examines violence among spectators around world, social & psychological causes, geography, alcohol, possible preventive measures.... More...
|
9 Pages / 2025 Words
14 sources, 26 Citations,
APA Format
$36.00
Return to List of Papers
|
Paper Abstract:
Examines violence among spectators around world, social & psychological causes, geography, alcohol, possible preventive measures.
Paper Introduction:
Numerous incidents of violence at sporting events in Europe and the United States have increased concerns that the act of watching certain sporting events, especially those involving violence such as Ice Hockey, Rugby, or Football, creates in some spectators the impetus for violent behavior at or immediately following the event. Fans trying to support their team and challenge supporters of the opposing team sometimes get carried away and commit violence on those opposing fans. In some cases, supporters of the winning or losing team carry their feelings out into the street and commit acts of vandalism and violence in the immediate area. The issue this raises is how it can be controlled, and theorists are considering what practical psychological strategies can be developed and implemented to curb spectator violence for these sporting events.
Text of the Paper:
The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper.
& Kirchler, E. "Spectator violence at sportsevents: What keeps enthusiastic fans in bounds?" The Physician andSportsmedicine 16:3:2 3-211. In some cases,supporters of the winning or losing team carry their feelings out into thestreet and commit acts of vandalism and violence in the immediate area.The issue this raises is how it can be controlled, and theorists areconsidering what practical psychological strategies can be developed andimplemented to curb spectator violence for these sporting events. Situational prevention where the risks of crime outweigh itsrewards should be explored as well. Hockey fans who come to the games in hopes of seeing fights breakout and those who have a history of brawling are most likely to join crowddisturbances (Kerr, 1994).Psychological elements of those individuals who claim to be willingparticipants in creating crowd disturbances include anger, aggression,public self-consciousness, psychopathy, impulsivity, and sensation-seeking. One of the reasons given for violence at sporting events is that thesporting events themselves involve violence and promote it as a means towin. Coakley (1982) considers sports from a functionalist point of viewand notes that this approach sees sport as usually providing learningexperiences that reinforce and extend the learning that takes place inother settings: In other words, sport serves as a backup or a secondary institution for primary social institutions such as the family, school, and church. One might expect that ice hockey's legitimate (within the rules) and illegitimate (outside them) violence has stimulated mayhem among the spectators, but such disorders as have taken place-- e.g., the Montreal Riot of 1955--have seldom if ever resulted in fatalities. New York: Walker andCompany. "Aggression, performancevariables, and anger self-report in ice hockey players." Journal ofPsychology 99:97-1 1. Some coaches believed in softening up the enemy before going in for the kill. A well-designed, clean, tidy stadium communicates that management is concerned about the crowd's well- being . Russell and Arms (1998) studied male ice hockey fans about their self-reported tendency to join a sports riot. She also recommends policetraining for riot situations (McIntyre, 1998, 37). Crowd control at sport events is anexample of a situational strategy. Their are an even mix of both sides leadingto an easier chance of violence. The locker room mirror. Any effort to curb violence at sporting events will be difficult todesign, difficult to enforce, and difficult to maintain. (1985, June 1 ). McCarthy, J.F. Acontrary view is offered suggesting that many mass audience situations,structured on vicarious entertainment, serve an unintended psychologicalfunction by channeling and releasing otherwise unplayable emotions. Exhibitionism requires an audienceand it is often this extravagant behavior that escalates to violence. Our games will continue to be as violent as we want them to be (Aaseng, 1993, 42). The two best predictors ofwillingness to riot were the time since the individual's last fight and thestrength of their desire to see fighting at the hockey game. Recent instances of violence have led many sports commentators tofear what could happen in the future. Understanding soccer hooliganism. Philadelphia:Open University Press. New York: columbiaUniversity Press. Among the suggestions she makes are for police to warn that arrestswill be made and for the use of commercials featuring team members andtheir coach asking fans to behave properly. Thisis one reason soccer in Europe and South America is so riot prone. Hooligans abroad.Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. "Predictors ofsports spectators' proclivity for riotous behavior in Finland and Canada."Personality and Individual Differences 21:519-525. Another good strategy cited is to keep the stadium clean and in goodcondition: An untidy, dark stadium with poorly maintained restrooms and long lines at concession stands signals to the crowd that promote misbehavior. "Can it happen in the U.S.?" SportsIllustrated 62:27. What should be hoped is that most hooliganism takes placein a communal setting so that controlling for the behavior of the few willaffect the many, preventing the start of a problem. The courts have not been effective,and while the owners of the sports clubs talk about doing something, theyhave accomplished little. Mosby. Zani, B. (1993). Guttmann (1986) asks how serious the problem of spectator violencewas at that time, noting that many of the more horrendous examples arerepeated endlessly and that most of the deaths reported are accidental, theresult of people being crushed in a panic situation. (1995). Would-be rioters, researchers have observed, rarely work alone.Seldom does an individual start a riot. al, 1996, 519-525). Better, more sportsmanlike behavior bythe athletes might inspire better fan behavior. and Kelly, B.R. Also the seating at European games isless formal than at American stadiums. By separating the sides and by making each attendee more of anindividual by giving them a separate seat. Kerr, J.H. One suggestion made has been to punish the clubs themselvesby having an independent tribunal with the power to punish any club for theactions of its supporters by taking points from scores and by imposingpenalties. Football "hooligans" often deny personal responsibility for their deedsblaming external variables as causes of their destructive behavior (Zani &Kirchler, 1991, 5-21). Shepherd, J.P. Careful monitoring of alcohol consumption atsporting events is important as alcohol plays a big role in sport'sviolence and underage drinkers are a constant problem. The British experience suggests that it will not be easy to curb thissort of violent behavior. & Armes, R.L. "When violence overshadows thespirit of sporting competition." Journal of Community & Applied SocialPsychology 1:5-21.----------------------- 9 Kathryn McIntyre of Business Insurance magazine suggests that teammembers and coaches appear in commercials stressing sportsmanship andproper team support etiquette. The British government has tried to cope withthe issue and has had little impact. "We're coached to pick out the most dangerous man on the opposite side and put him out in The first five minutes of play" (Aaseng, 1993, 25- 26).Aaseng also notes that spectators at that time could be just as deadly andcites the 19 5 brawl between players and fans from Columbia University andWesleyan College. (1986). Another disturbing element that this study supported is the fact thatit is the youngest fans who are the most prone to violence. Neff (1985) fears that spectatorviolence in the United States could rise to the level seen in Belgium thatyear, noting that while American fans are not as fanatical as some Europeansoccer fans, "some among them harbor the same frustrations, grow similarlyaggressive at sports events, drink excessively before and during games andsuccumb to what psychologists call 'deindividualization'--the loss ofinhibition and a sense of accountability when part of a large group" (Neff,1985, 27). & Armes, R.L. Careful use of police who are helpfuland well trained in crowd control and health campaigns to reduce drug useand alcohol consumption also work toward curbing violence (Shepard &Farrington, 1995, 272). Thereis a viciousness coming out" (Aaseng, 1993, 42). A riot broke out at a professional football game in February of thisyear in Denver, Colorado when the Denver team won the Super BowlChampionship. Fans trying to supporttheir team and challenge supporters of the opposing team sometimes getcarried away and commit violence on those opposing fans. (1998). The police often face an impossible task when ariot begins. & Farrington, D.P. A more complicated approach is suggested by Williams, Dunning, andMurphy (1984) requiring monitors to watch fans known for their hooliganism. As for what to do aboutthis, Aaseng notes that there are tight controls which can be imposed onthe playing field to reduce violence, but this is not so easilyaccomplished with reference to fans: Controls on our society, however, are not so firm. The problem of youth and violence is receiving much necessaryattention in today's world. (1996). The situation is no different today than it was in times of bloodlust sports in the Roman Coliseum. Guttmann, A. The wealthiest fans are less likely toriot. (1978). The would-berioter has a tendency to believe everyone else is doing and thinking thesame thing as he is and that more individuals are planning to riot orbehave in a rowdy way than matches reality (Russell & Arms, 1995, 338-386). When violence grew rampant during some cricket matches held in India,the next year the games were held thousands of miles away from the homecountries of the two participating teams. Behavior associatedwith drinking can be controlled by reducing drinking, for instance, thoughthere will always be a few who manage to drink and who may cause a problem. Teamshave strong fan groups, clubs of young men who support their team with thesame intensity as the criminal youth gangs more familiar in the States.Some studies show that the larger the group the easier it is for them toexhibit antisocial behavior but one well-known study Finnish and Canadianhockey spectators did not support this theory (Mustonen et. On April 24 of this year at Indiana State,several Wichita players were annoyed by the taunts of fans, some of whomwere illegally drinking alcohol, and charged into the stands to fight withthe hecklers. Mustonen, A., Armes, R.L., Russell, G.W. (1984). Louis: C.V. "Preventingcrime and violence: Pre-school education, early family support, andsituational prevention can be effective." British Medical Journal31 :6975:271-272. Williams, J., Dunning, E., & Murphy, P. The fans themselves are expressing theirviolence more openly as well, and Aaseng cites Utah coach Frank Layden uponhis retirement in 199 : "There is something happening with the fans. Aaseng (1993) notes that the violence on the field used to be muchworse: The pioneer days of football often resembled gang warfare fought without weapons. One turn-of-the-century Ivy League player described his team's strategy in a college football game. Only the very wealthiest of fanscould afford to travel to the game. Some stadiums are reviewing alcohol sales, using smaller containers,and refusing to sell beer after a certain time in the game to avoidencouraging and facilitating drunk driving. stadiumdesign actually provides some nice psychological strategies toward lessviolence. (DeBennedette, 1988, 211). McIntyre (1998) points out that this sort of event shouldserve as a reminder that the police and the teams alike need to have a goodrisk management plan to prevent such outbreaks and to control them if theyoccur. (1994). Aaseng points out that American society is itself violent an that onereason why sports are more violent is because society enjoys violententertainment (Aaseng, 1993, 39). Preventative measures that can helplower these risks are also excellent suggestions toward lowering theincidence of sport spectator violence (Shepherd & Farrington, 1995, 271). Many spectators stand in Europe andteam areas are less well defined than in the United States. (1982). DeBennedette, V. (1988, March). Disenfranchised people are more inclined to participate in riots(McCarthy & Kelly, 1978, 97-1 1). Coakley, J.J. . Violence in sports is nothing more than a reflection of our society. Neff, C. Programs tocontrol behavior can be developed, but they will be effective only oncertain people. Thisis a restatement of the idea of catharsis suggested by Aristotle, who heldthat the drama produced such a catharsis in the viewer. Numerous incidents of violence at sporting events in Europe and theUnited States have increased concerns that the act of watching certainsporting events, especially those involving violence such as Ice Hockey,Rugby, or Football, creates in some spectators the impetus for violentbehavior at or immediately following the event. Sport in society: Issues and controversies.St. InEurope the fans of competing teams can both easily afford to attend thegames since they are so close. . Another factor that has been much studied and appears to play a rolein spectator violence is the concept of false consensus. Through sport people learn the general ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that make them contributing members of society (Coakley, 1982, 29).However, sport has also been cited as a source of violent behavior insociety and as an activity that brings this violence out in spectators. Fatalities did occur immediately before a cricket match in calcutta in 1968 when six people were trampled to death by fans fighting for tickets to India versus Australia, but the vast majority of the deaths occurring before, during, or immediately after sports events are associated with soccer football (Guttmann, 1986, 159-16 ). However, thereality of violence at sporting events suggests that these events are notcathartic for many spectators and that instead these events may actuallyengender violent behavior in some spectators. Russell, G.W. These individuals who come to see the fights at ice hockey game, wereshown by Russell and Arms (1998), to come only for the fights and if the on-ice fighting were minimized in the sport they would no longer be interestedin attending and the level of potential spectator violence would bediminished. Other factors involved in fan violence have to do with geography. Family support services and parenting education are strategies thatcould help. Sports spectators. (1995, February 4). (1991). Better surveillance while it may prove aneffective and logical line of protection is often unpopular in this countrywith its strong belief in personal privacy (DeBennedette, 1988, 2 4). Some stadiums have suggestedbetter camera surveillance of the crowd, creating an environment wheregroup anonymity diminishes. "Toward a social-psychologicalprofile of would-be rioters." Aggressive Behavior 24:219-226. Packs of youngmen who have just fought, who are hoping to see more fighting, and who areimpulsive, angry, and sensation seeking are the one's who will most likelycause a riot (Russell & Armes, 1998, 219-226). Coaches, managers, leagues, and athletes need to liveup to the codes of their sports and be given penalties and rewards based ontheir behavior. Cleaning up the stadium is also an effective method that is simple toinstitute and that may have a good effect. Guttmann (1986) notes someearlier instances of such behavior when he writes, The 191 championship bout between Jack Johnson and Jim Jeffries led, as we have seen, to a national orgy of violence, but post-World-War-II fight fans have apparently learned how to riot without actually killing anyone. Violence at sporting events is not something new, though some believethe incidence of such violence has increased. The United States has indeed experienced more violence fromspectators at sporting events in recent years, not only in professionalsports but in college sports. The most effective campaignsto reduce alcohol and drug use among adolescents use positive role models.Young people are less likely to participate in an activity that is shunnedby an individual that they respect (DeBenedette, 1988, 211). One hates to think that high ticket prices and expensive travelarrangements are the best ways to mediate fan violence but they do lowerthe risk. "False consensus effect,physical aggression, anger, and a willingness to escalate a disturbance."Aggressive Behavior 21:381-386. He notes that thereis much research on crowd psychology which says something about thereaction of spectators and people in large groups Sociological literature on football violence shows that theindividuals most likely to be involved in crowd violence are young, singlemales. They tested the men withquestionnaires administered pregame and during breaks in the game. Russell, G.W. The highest risk factors for criminal behaviorin children are hyperactivity, inadequate parenting, impulsiveness, povertyand separation from their parents. The game of football itself was clearly more dangerousthen, and eighteen players were killed in the 19 5 season (Aaseng, 1993,26). U.S. Peacemakers, or those who quellviolence, remain an understudied group, but their effect in quelling sportsviolence deserves attention. Reference Aaseng, N. Theirfindings concurred with the information on footballers and violentspectators that preceded their work. A code of acceptable behavior for both fan and athleteshould be reevaluated (McIntyre, 1998, 37). Neff (1985) notes that violence is most likely to occur at games playedbetween traditional rivals, so such games should have more security and beready for whatever might happen (Neff, 1985, 27). Sports heroes are provingto be very shaky role models with very public drug, violence, anddiscipline problems.
If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again:
or
Click here to request an essay written just for you.
|
|
|
