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CHILDREN IN ORGANIZED SPORTS.
Term Paper ID:25584
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Essay Subject:
Positive & negative effects, gender issues, competition, role of parents & coaches, moral development, physical requirements, injuries, protective equipment, diet.... More...
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15 Pages / 3375 Words
15 sources, 38 Citations,
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Paper Abstract:
Positive & negative effects, gender issues, competition, role of parents & coaches, moral development, physical requirements, injuries, protective equipment, diet.
Paper Introduction:
Controlled sports permeate the everyday life of American society. Even young children are affected through their exposure to organized athletics, which include baseball/softball, soccer, football, karate/judo, wrestling, field/ice hockey, lacrosse, boxing, and rugby. Participation in such sports can have both a positive and negative effect on the lives of children.
Griffin (1998) offers research and personal insight on organized athletics in an attempt to help parents make decisions about their children and sports. One of the main issues the author addresses is what impact sports have on the social, physical, and moral development of children. The basis of this book is that children see sports as more than just enjoyment and the enhancement of physical skills, particularly for the child who is an enthusiastic participant: "sports is about growing up,
Text of the Paper:
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Perceived competence is another factor in the motivation of childrento participate in controlled sports. Weiss and Chaumeton (1992) focus on motivation as an explanation ofan individual's participation in sports. Football has the highest risk of injury to the young athlete, followed bywrestling. According to Roberts (1992) children, like adults, engage inevaluations regarding their success or failure in controlled sportsactivities. Given the fact that orofacial injuries inyouth can be reduced with protective gear, this attitude is a disservice toyoung athletes. Such is not the case for thenonathletes" (Greendorfer 119). The athletes were also queried about their positive emotionalresponses (enjoyment) of their sport. "Differences in Childhood Socialization Influences ofWomen Involved in Sport and Women Not Involved in Sport." In AndrewYiannakis and Susan Greendorfer (Eds.) Applied Sociology of Sport, 111-124. Their participation in controlled sports has socialpsychological effects on personality development. Although successful intervention to prevent sports injuries is oftendifficult, Hergenroeder (1998) concludes that pediatricians can play alarger role. One of the physical effects of participation in controlled sports isthe potential for injury. If significant adults inthe child's life would take a more relaxed attitude toward competition,fewer children would experience sports injuries. Biathlons and some triathlons are held for participants who areyounger than 15 years of age. As Greendorfer(1992) suggests, girls are often socialized for nonathletic participation.Bredemeier's research further suggests that girls who show strongtendencies for sports involvement are channeled into low and medium contactsports, even when their abilities might make them fit for high contactsports. "Motivational Orientations in Sport." In Thelma Horn (Ed.) Advances in Sport Psychology, 61-1 . Injuries aredefined as those that lead to time lost from sports participation. This can beaccomplished by a qualified health professional using the National Centerfor Health Statistics growth chart. The authorconcludes, however, that prepubescent children can respond to endurance andaerobic training if the program is adequately designed and continues for 12weeks or more. Carson Jr. Commonoveruse injuries occur in the child's knees, elbows, ankles, shoulders,back, and wrists. Field testing, such as simple physicalperformance tests of the ability to do a certain number of sit-ups or thetime it takes to run a certain distance, are heavily influenced bymaturity, height, and body mass. Participants included boys and girls in Grades 4 through 7. "Prevention of Sports Injuries." Pediatrics, vol 1 1 (June 1998): 1 57(7).Nowjack-Raymer, Ruth and Helen Gift. The average age of thepatients in the study was 14 years. Parents, in particular, played an important role in how muchcompetitive stress the athlete experienced: "Parents who pressure theirchildren to participate in sport may contribute to the level of stress thechildren experience prior to competition and may be involved in other moreindirect ways in this stress" (Scanlan and Lewthwaite 47). St. Since children's dietary needs are different from thoseof adults, parents and coaches often require education on the processes ofnormal growth and development: "It is also important to discourageunhealthful nutrition practices such as improper weight management, fluidrestriction, and misuse of dietary supplements" (American Dietetic 61 ). "Timely Statement of the American Dietetic Association: Nutrition Guidance for Child Athletes in Organized Sports." Journal of the American Dietetic Association, vol 96 (June 1996): 61 (2).Bredemeier, Brenda. Anestimated 3 million young people are injured through participating insports each year; from 25 percent to 3 percent of these injuries occur inyouth involved in organized sports. Millions of children and adolescents participate in controlled sportsin the United States. Veryyoung children will continue trying to achieve success even when it isapparent that they are unsuited for a particular sport. Weiss and Chaumeton (1992) also explore the issue of feedback andreinforcement by adults and peers. Children tend to use more relative standards of comparison(e.g., Tommy is not as good as Eric), while adults favor more absolutestandards (e.g., batting averages and team records). Louis: Mosby, 1997.Weiss, Maureen and Chaumeton, Nigel. (Eds.) The Year Book of Sports Medicine, xxi-xxxv. Acuteinjuries are caused by sudden trauma to the body. In other words, they tend to internalize the attitude thatwinning is everything. The child's age is a factor in this evaluation. HealthReference Center. For instance, some sports such as wrestling have specific weightclassifications. The authorconcludes that sports with a high degree of physical contact may not be inthe best interests of most children: "The types of social interactionsfostered by relatively high-contact sports in typical settings may providelittle stimulus for--or even impede--moral growth" (Bredemeier 294). The authors concluded that athleteswho perceived that their coaches and parents were satisfied with theirwrestling performances for the season experienced more enjoyment from thesport. Wearing protective coverings can reduce the amount of injury forchildren who participate in sports. "Use of Mouthguards and Headgear inOrganized Sports by School-aged Children." Public Health Reports, vol 111(January-February 1996): 82(5). The study also found that of all thesignificant others who discouraged the nonathletes from participating insports, mothers had the strongest influence: "the mother certainly seemsto be a significant socializing agent who may partially account fordifferences in the sport socialization of women" (Greendorfer 12 ). Works CitedAmerican Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness."Participation in Boxing by Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults."Pediatrics, vol 99 (January 1997): 134(2).American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness."Triathlon Participation by Children and Adolescents." Pediatrics, vol 98(September 1996): 511(2).American Dietetic Association. Being such a socialexperience, the athlete's parents and coaches have a stake in the outcomeof the competition. Such trauma can result in broken teeth, facialbone fractures, blindness, concussion, permanent brain damage, and evendeath. Children, like adults, erroneously believe that theycan lose weight by strict dieting or gain weight by excessive eating. Article Number: A18 76662. Mouthgards and headgear reduce the incidence of these types ofinjuries. To obtain their data regarding the wearing of such equipment,the authors analyzed a 1991 National Health Interview Survey of ChildHealth. Also, these events do not require strenuous training.However, the Academy cautions that, as with all controlled sports forchildren, the emphasis should be on enjoyment and fitness instead ofcompetition. Thisstudy recommends that parents become more aware of the impact they exert onthe choices made by female children on whether or not to participate incontrolled sports. The author concludes that once a child chooses an organized sport,and becoming seriously involved in it, then it becomes important for thechild's maturation process to encounter success. Adults,on the other hand, show no qualms about emphasizing the negative aspects ofcompetition. For instance, after his or her Little League team loses agame, a child undergoes a mental process with inputs based on informationabout the game, causal attribution, expectancy for future wins and losses,feelings of pride or shame, and decisions regarding future participation orpersistence. Using questionnaires, Scanlan and Lewthwaite (1988) collected datafrom 76 boys between the ages of 9 and 14 years who were participating inthe season's final tournament of the California Age Group WrestlingAssociation. Greendorfer (1992) examines the types of childhood influences thathelp determine the rate of participation of women in sports. Young athletes should have adequate water intakebefore, during, and after a sporting event. While children are engaged in the events, adults shouldmonitor risks such as extremes in temperature, dehydration, and theimproper use of protective gear. "Sports Safety for Children." Pediatrics for Parents,vol 17 (January 1996): 2(3).Roberts, Glyn. Controlled sports permeate the everyday life of American society.Even young children are affected through their exposure to organizedathletics, which include baseball/softball, soccer, football, karate/judo,wrestling, field/ice hockey, lacrosse, boxing, and rugby. Baseball is a national pastime and is one of the most popular sportsfor children as well. The most common injury occurred from being hit by theball. Adults and coaches must be alert for injuries inchildren, some of who are so enthusiastic for competition that they arewilling to play through significant pain: "coaches and parents put toomuch pressure on children to perform at high levels, win at all costs, andto stay in the game even when hurt" (Rideout 4). Scanlan and Lewthwaite (1988) explore the impact of parents andcoaches on young athletes who participate in controlled sports.Competition involves both stress and enjoyment. Overuse injuries resultfrom small, repetitive injuries to bones, joints, and muscles. In general, the competitive process consists ofindividuals or teams striving to meet certain athletic standards. Download pages: 1-8.Paternack, Joel, Kenneth Veenema and Charles Callahan. The study found that football was the only sport in which themajority of children wore mouthgards and headgear. . Participation insuch sports can have both a positive and negative effect on the lives ofchildren. Their skeletal and muscular systems are not fully developed,which makes them more vulnerable to injury. Roberts (1992)notes that when children engage in unorganized competition, they tend toequalize inequities by exchanging strong and weak players so that no singleteam dominates. The author defines thecompetitive process and then examines the cognitive evaluations made bychildren who compete. Download pages: 1-9.Greendorfer, Susan. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Books, 1988.Carson, Jr., William and Seth Gasser. Some children evenresort to vitamin, mineral, and other dietary supplements that can raisesafety concerns, particularly when they replace a sound nutrition program.The diet of the healthy child athlete should be based on variety, balance,and moderation. For most, the competitive process is a rewardingexperience. More than 8 percent of the patientsseen were pitchers. and Gasser (1998) review the history and physicalexamination findings of 23 cases of Little Leaguer's shoulder. Although an increasing number of athletic trainingprograms are being developed for children, most exercise tests wereoriginally developed for adults. In addition, very young children tend to attach an additivemeaning to external rewards, viewing them as a bonus for participating insports that they already consider enjoyable. "Little Leaguer's Shoulder: A Report of 23 Cases." American Journal of Sports Medicine, vol 26 (July-August 1998): 575(6). They want their child's team to win and are perfectly willingto "stack the deck" to do so, even if it means that certain children willnot benefit from the resulting social comparison: "Adult intervention, onthe other hand, formalizes teams and structures success and failure for thechildren if inequities exist between teams initially" (Roberts 187). These evaluations can influence the stress andenjoyment that the athlete experiences. Laboratory scores are generallyunreliable for children under 8 years of age: "Young children take aconsiderable time to learn the operation of exercise test equipment and tobecome at ease in the laboratory environment" (Shephard xxiii). Early studies of such motivationin children concluded that external rewards such as trophies or ribbonsproduce less interest in a particular activity for children. One of the primary injuries that occurs in organizedsports is orofacial trauma. The authors considerthe quality of the feedback as being more important than the quality.Also, the influence of significant others changes as the child matures:"While parents seem to play a central role in early and middle childhood,peers become increasingly more important in the later childhood andadolescent years" (Weiss and Chaumeton 91). Thiscondition is accompanied by pain, swelling, and discomfort in the throwingarms of youth who play organized baseball/softball. Before allowing a child to participate in controlled sports, his orher nutritional status should be measured and assessed. These events are sufficiently short induration (less than one hour) so there is not a significant risk foroveruse injury. The authorscontend that external rewards play a positive role in the motivation ofchildren in sports: "Children who have not experienced certain activitiesor adults who have been sedentary most of their lives may not choose toengage in sport, leisure, or fitness pursuits on their own" (Weiss andChaumeton 72). Theprocess is a social one in that the child athlete is constantly beingevaluated by peers and adults: "Recognizing that competition is anevaluative social process from the point of view of the child is animportant point to remember" (Roberts 18 ). Hergenroeder (1998) examines the role of thepediatrician in preventing and treating sports injuries. Boxing may result inserious brain and eye injuries. Certain child athletes are more susceptible thanothers. Using data obtained from 224female intercollegiate athletes and women who were not involved in sports,the author tested several hypotheses regarding the influence of familymembers, peers, and teachers in the athlete and nonathlete samples.Extensive information on family background was gathered, includingreligion, education and occupation of parents, the subject's firstinvolvement with sports, family values toward sports, and the people whomost encouraged or discouraged them to participate in sports.Greendorfer's study supports Griffin's conclusion that success is importantfor children who engage in controlled sports: "Further examination of thedata indicates childhood presence of a strong value structure toward beinggood in sport for the athletes . Children have special problems related to sports injuries because oftheir age. Almost two-thirds of the participants are boys, but anincreasing number of girls participate as well. The causeof Little Leaguer's shoulder is yet unknown. Because children's bodies areundergoing rapid growth, and because bone tends to grow more rapidly thanmuscles and tendons, the muscles and tendons are short and tight, andtherefore easily injured. The child may have to stretch in order to achieve thestandard, a process that Griffin sees as part of the reward: "the bestcircumstance for children to be in is where they confront challenges justbeyond their current personal capability and are successful in meetingthem" (Griffin 37). Of this number, approximately 77 , require physician visits and from 45, to 9 , require hospitalization. Subjects were askedquestions related to their own states of anxiety and that of their parentsand coaches. Other sports, such as gymnastics and figure skatingemphasize appearance. About 9.4 million children, or 24 percent of theschool-aged population participates in this form of organized sport(Nowjack-Raymer and Gift 3). The firstformal event was the Ironkids Bread Race Series in 1985. Children as young as fiveyears of age recognize that they must operate in an environment of socialcomparison. The average duration of the symptoms was 7 months.All the patients were male, and had been involved in playing for more than12 months. Available: Infotrac SearchBank. Competition is a learned behavior, and the "winning is everything"attitude in children is actively encouraged by adults. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, 1992.----------------------- 16 Roberts (1992) analyzes the competitive process from the point ofview of children. Gymnastics, basketball, baseball, and softball have lowerinjury rates. Shephard (1997) examines issues of endurance testing and training inyoung children. "The Moral of the Youth Sport Story." In Eugene Brownand Crystal Branta (Eds.) Competitive Sports for Children and Youth, 285-296. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Books, 1988.Shephard, Roy. Suchunhealthy eating habits may merely result in fatigue, malnutrition, eatingdisorders, impaired growth, or increased body fat. Thecommon treatment for Little Leaguer's shoulder is rest for three monthswith a gradual return to play using the non-injured shoulder: "Althoughusually a benign, self-limiting condition, Little Leaguer's shoulder canoccasionally develop into more problematic epiphyseal problems" (Carson Jr.and Gasser 7). Success is interpreted asfulfilling the standards of the particular sport, e.g., a good battingaverage in baseball. Although Little League baseball playersexperience a relatively low rate of injury compared to sports likefootball, Little Leaguers are subject to a fair share of injuries.Paternack, Veenema and Callahan (1996) surveyed Little League baseball teammanagers for injury incidents among more than 2,8 players ranging in agefrom 7 to 18 years. . Nowjack-Raymer and Gift (1996) conclude that coaches are the adultswith the greatest potential to influence the wearing of protective gear bychildren. Such feedback includes expressions ofapproval or disapproval of mastery attempts and outcomes, acceptance ofmistakes, and actions to correct skill performance. Although the American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on SportsMedicine and Fitness opposes boxing, the group has given its approval toparticipation in triathlons by children and adolescents. Moralinterviews were conducted in which the children described their sportinvolvement and moral reasoning, specifically their aggressiveness insports and daily life and their reaction to injuries in sports. Sports in the Lives of Children and Adolescents. Health Reference Center. The authors recommend that guidelines for youthbaseball/softball teams monitor young pitchers on the basis of their actualpitch count instead of by innings pitched, the method used at present. The American Dietetic Association (1996) has expressed concern aboutthe nutrition needs of 6- to 12-year-old children participating inorganized sports. One of the main issues the author addresses is what impactsports have on the social, physical, and moral development of children.The basis of this book is that children see sports as more than justenjoyment and the enhancement of physical skills, particularly for thechild who is an enthusiastic participant: "sports is about growing up, thedirection life will take for this child. Article Number: A2 993973. Although amateurboxers suffer fewer blows to the head than professional boxers, andtherefore fewer head injuries, amateur boxing is far from being consideredsafe. Some played on more than one team at the same time. Also, differences in training response are noted between fieldtests and laboratory tests. Nor does protective equipment significantly help to reduce the riskof injury: "Prophylactic measures with helmets, unlimited lengths of handbandage, and heavier gloves have not decreased the frequency of matchesthat are stopped for neurologic reasons" (American Academy 134).Pediatricians are urged to provide their young patients with theinformation they need to assess the risk of injury involved in boxing andto direct them toward safer athletic activities. Part ofthe blame is the socialization process. A triathlon is asporting event that combines swimming, bicycling, and running.Participation in triathlons is relatively recent for children. Since then suchevents have grown in number to 18 in 1994, including regional and nationalchampionships. The injury rate can be reduced by preseason exam, thepresence of a doctor at sporting events, adequate hydration, propercoaching, proper field conditions, and sensitive officiating. Available: Infotrac SearchBank. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998.Hergenroeder, Albert. The American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Sports Medicine andFitness (1997) has issued a formal policy statement of disapproval onchildren's participation in the sport of boxing. This exhibits a degree of high moral development. Probable causes areinflammation due to overuse, stress fracture, or rotational stress. Responses were given by more than 9, parents of children ages 7through 17. Womenparticipate in sports at rates that are far below those of males. To avoid the lingering effects of negative experiences,significant others in the child's life must become more sensitive to thechild's needs in the competitive process. Adults also should be alert to dehydration in young athletes.Children are not able to tolerate extreme temperatures as well as adults:"Supervision of fluid intake is essential: because children do notinstinctively drink enough fluid to replace water losses, they may pushthemselves to the point of heat-related illness during prolonged exercise"(American Dietetic 61 ). "Children in Competition: A Theoretical Perspective and Recommendations for Practice." In Andrew Yiannakis and Susan Greendorfer (Eds.) Applied Sociology of Sport, 179-192. Bredemeier (1988) examines the competitive sports experience on themoral development of children. "Issues in the Testing and Training of Prepubescent Children." In Roy Shephard et al. The authors support Robert'sconclusion that children participate in sports to the degree that theybelieve they are responsible for success or failure in the outcome. The influence of parents likely plays arole in the avoidance of high contact sports for girls. Because children lack the maturity to addressthese concerns on their own, it is up to parents and coaches to provide thecorrect guidance. Subjects in the author's study included 1 6participants in a summer sport camp sponsored by the University of Oregon,Eugene. Unfortunately, coaches sometimes shirk this responsibilitybecause of perceived liability issues: "some youth sports organizers arerefusing to participate in educational programs because they believe thatthey can be held liable for injuries only after receiving instruction"(Nowjack-Raymer and Gift 7). The authors found that most injuries were acute, andexperienced by defensive players more than offensive players. In these types of sports, rough playis encouraged as well as domination of the opponent: "The fact thatparticipation in higher contact sports was also related to tendencies toaggress in everyday life suggests that these sport experiences may berelated to behavioral tendencies that extend beyond the bounds of theplaying field" (Bredemeier 292). As childrenmature, and become more vulnerable to social comparison, they tend to dropout of competition for which they are not well-suited: "Perceptions ofboth competence and control are shaped as a result of one's history ofsuccesses and failures, as well as by the characteristic feedback andreinforcement from significant others" (Weiss and Chaumeton 92). Sports can have a significanteffect on the success or failure of that process" (Griffin 19). Thus parentsand coaches should carefully gauge their actions and reactions in relationto children's athletic performance. Measurements can also be used tomonitor body composition during training. Griffin (1998) offers research and personal insight on organizedathletics in an attempt to help parents make decisions about their childrenand sports. An injurywas defined as one that was serious enough to cause the injured child torequire medical/dental care, miss a game, or be disallowed from playing acertain position. Although pediatricians treat a significant amount of sports-related injuries in children, many confess that they are not comfortablewith sports medicine, either through inadequate training or lack ofexperience. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Books, 1992.Griffin, Robert. Nowjack-Raymer and Gift (1996) assessthe practice of wearing mouthgards and headgear in organized sports byschool-aged children. Towards this end, Griffin devotes considerable spaceto educating parents on creating a nurturing environment that will helptheir child succeed in sports. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Books, 1992.Scanlan, Tara and Lewthwaite, Rebecca. The committee notes that amateur boxing isessentially a collision sport, with points scored based on blows to thehead: "as opponents of boxing have emphasized, boxing is the only sportwhere direct blows to the head are rewarded and the ultimate victory may beto render the opponent senseless" (American Academy 134). Rideout (1996) cites research about sports safety for children.Sports injuries fall into two categories: acute and overuse. For others, competition can cause an undue amount of emotionalstress, hinder psychosocial development, and result in severe physicalinjury. The questionnaires were administered at periods ranging fromtwo weeks to two hours before the final competition. Childrenunder the age of 1 routinely fail to input information about the gameitself; they believe that outcomes are primarily dependent on their abilityand skill: "We have all observed young children who continue to beenthusiastic about an activity despite apparent strong evidence whichsuggests that they are not good at the activity" (Roberts 1992). Children who participate in such sports have needsrelated to normal growth and development in addition to the skillrequirements of the sport. "From Stress to Enjoyment: Parental and Coach Influences on Young Participants." In Eugene Brown and Crystal Branta (Eds.) Competitive Sports for Children and Youth, 41-48. Therefore, it is difficult to assess peakeffort. Face masks or eye protection would be effective in preventing suchinjuries in batters but it would not be feasible for defensive players towear such protection. Anestimated 75 percent of children's sports injuries are from overuse: "onereason for the increase in overuse injuries is that kids start playing onesport at a young age, train year round, and do not engage in otheractivities which use different parts of the body" (Rideout 2). Bredemeier (1988) also found that only the boys interviewedparticipated in high contact sports. "Baseball Injuries: A Little League Survey." Pediatrics, vol 98 (September 1996): 445.Rideout, Christine. In additionto physical injury, pediatricians should be aware of the psychologicalinjury that can come from participation in sports, particularly loweredself-esteem. After theage of 13, however, American children develop an emphasis on sportsoutcomes. Unfortunately, children sometimes fall prey to unhealthful weightcontrol practices. As such they make evaluations about the athlete'sperformance and ability.
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