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SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT.
Term Paper ID:26445
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Essay Subject:
Definition, goals, benefits & drawbacks, assessment; roles of school board, superintendent, principal, teachers & parents.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Definition, goals, benefits & drawbacks, assessment; roles of school board, superintendent, principal, teachers & parents.
Paper Introduction:
EDUCATION POLICY ISSUE: SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT
Political leaders, school administrators, business leaders, and parents are very vocal about their concern for the quality of the public school education that today's students are receiving, which has given rise to a mind-boggling list of ideas intended to reform our schools. The list includes such concepts as mandating smaller classroom sizes, creating social work links, offering diversity training, initiating small-group learning, staffing mall-schools, generating a menu of elective classes and seminars, devising charter schools, providing on-campus psychotherapy, partnering with business for school-to-work programs, teaching critical thinking skills (a.k.a. higher order thinking), legislating school vouchers, and, of particular interest over the last decade, a bottom-to-top reorganization of management, often referred
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Peterson, David. Conley, D. No longer could bethe principal be the senior partner in the firm, possessing all district-level knowledge and final veto power. School-based Management: Strategies for success; Section two: Summaryreview of the literature. The school board "continues toestablish a clear and unifying vision and to set broad policies for thedistrict and the schools. Lead to greater creativity in the design of programs; 1. Berkeley, CA:National Center for Research in Vocational Education, University ofBerkeley. E., & Reitzug, U. Rittner, B., & Sacks, A. 1). They forecast new roles with fewerdecisions to make by themselves leading to a loss of control and power"(Hallinger, as quoted in Conley, 1992). The involvement of parents is "essential to the successfulimplementation of SBM. Department of Education. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. Department of Education. Supporters of SBM argue that it provides better programs for students"because resources will be available to directly match student needs...SBMensures higher quality decisions because they are made by groups instead ofindividuals...it increases communication among the stakeholders" (Oswald,1995, p. It may take 5 years or more to implement; 1. Superintendents can facilitate the process of SBM by "makingcentral offices service-oriented" ("School-based...Promise", 1996, p. It is recommended that the superintendent and his or her officeprovide "professional development opportunities, encourage risk-taking andexperimentation in teaching methods, serve as models by using SBMthemselves, and create communication links" (David, as cited in Oswald,1995). Robertson, P. 1-2; "HighInvolvement", 1996, pp. (1997). The question remains whether it is good for thestudent. The listincludes such concepts as mandating smaller classroom sizes, creatingsocial work links, offering diversity training, initiating small-grouplearning, staffing mall-schools, generating a menu of elective classes andseminars, devising charter schools, providing on-campus psychotherapy,partnering with business for school-to-work programs, teaching criticalthinking skills (a.k.a. (1996, October). Known variously as school-based management, site-based management,decentralization, local governance, structural reorganization, and systemicreform, the decentralization of decision-making authority to the schoolsite "is one of the most popular strategies that came out of the 198 'sschool reform movement. Eugene, OR:ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management. (1995, July). F., & Brown, K. 9). Wohlstetter, P. Wohlstetter, P., & Mohrman, S. Education researchconsumer guide: School-based management. (1995, October). Washington, DC: Office ofEducational Research & Improvement, U.S. Studies of effectivepublic schools agree that a strong central leader, like the principal, iskey to successful management" ("School-based...Strategies", 1996, p. School-basedManagement: Strategies for success (CPRE Finance Briefs). Available:http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed347491.html. EDUCATION POLICY ISSUE: SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT Political leaders, school administrators, business leaders, andparents are very vocal about their concern for the quality of the publicschool education that today's students are receiving, which has given riseto a mind-boggling list of ideas intended to reform our schools. Washington, DC: Office ofEducational Research & Improvement, U.S. 1 ). Chavkin, N. Aprincipal's ability to "transition from one leadership style to another, toperceive power as something that is multiplied rather than reduced when itis shared, seems to be one of the key issues affecting the long-termsuccess of restructuring" (Conley, 1992, p. (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. 2). Change is a key ingredient in school-based management. 2). 2). Schorr, L. 7). Available:http://www.aasa.org/Inews/4-15-98gee.htm Meier, D. The principal's role in school-based management. School-based decision-making is one aspect of systemic school reform--an approach to improving schools that also includes changes in instruction and curriculum and in the institutional web that surrounds schools to achieve an integrated focus on the outcomes of education" ("School-Based...Promise", 1996, p. Department of Education. Address the needs of at-risk students via direct services, supervision of interns, or by employing agencies that provide such services; and the myriad other services for which social workers are valued. Somewhere deep inside my mind, or maybe it's in my heart and tingedwith nostalgia, there exists a belief that school districts andparticularly principals know what they're doing. Department of Education.Available: http://www.ed.gov.pubs/SER/SchBasedMgmt/sectionw.html. 3). Additionally, some of the problems that SBM stakeholders may face are"more work for stakeholders, less efficiency, uneven school performance, anincreased need for staff development, confusion about new roles andresponsibilities, and coordination difficulties" (Prasch, as cited inOswald, 1995). That deceptively simple change in how schools are managed and governed, as attractive as it is to many teachers, principals and parents, turns out to be rather meaningless unless it is part of a focused, even passionate, quest for improvement. 1-3) and thrifty budget decisions("What", 1996, pp. NJ: Consortiumfor Policy Research in Education. Social work literature is replete with examples of misinterpretedcultural differences (Chavkin & Brown, 1992; Rittner & Sacks, 1995; Chavkin& Gonzalez, 1995) resolved through the intervention of culturally-sensitiveprofessionals, such as social workers, yet, not once in the non-social workstudies and articles reviewed for this paper, were social workers referredto as partners in the school-based management team. However, research into what constitutes an exemplary school, mostnotably smallness, decision-making autonomy and accountability (Meier,1998, p. (OR 93-3 58, Number 4). In my opinion, SBM's most significant contribution to education may beits capacity for including the disenfranchised. 2). 1-8). L. This isn't to say that I'm unwilling to embark on the unknown,unwilling to take risks and try something new. New boundariesfor school-based management: The high involvement model. Educational reform and the schoolcounselor. An impressive array of professional organizations have weighed in onthe issue of SBM, among them the American Association of SchoolAdministrators, the National Association of Elementary School Principals,and the National Association of Secondary School Principals. Can the odds be changed? 9). Redirect resources to support the goals developed in each school; 1. (1994). 8; Wohlstetter, 1995, p. 1). SBM is more successful if it is implemented gradually. Department of Education. 1). (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. Cross, B. These are positive outcomes with respect to any student,but particularly so for the minoritystudent, for the student living in poverty or a single-parent home, or forthe student who feels disenfranchised and isolated. (1991, October). The National School Boards Associationwarns, SBM is a "complex undertaking, raising multiple policy issuesinvolving lines of authority for making decisions and responsibility andaccountability for the consequences of such decisions" (NSBA, as quoted inOswald, 1995). Available:http://www.ed.gov/pubs/SchBasedMgmt/redefin3.html. The principal must use a team approach to decision-making because"teachers will feel more positive toward school leaders and more committedto school goals and objectives. (1995-1996, December-January). Central office administrators must transfer authority to principals, and principals in turn must share this authority with teachers and parents (Myers & Stonehill, 1993, p. In the newand improved firm, the traditional power roles of administrators anddistrict players would have to change if school-based management was to beeffective, or so went the argument. Local leaders said to be at helm of "last, great social movement":Report of the Annenberg Institute study, Reasons for Hope, Voices forChange. Available:http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed347475.html. If itcannot produce better students, with a broader base of knowledge andcritical thinking skills, then it strikes me as a waste of time, energy andmoney. 1-4).) A gross over-sight, notwithstanding, it should be clear that socialworkers are needed in the school system, either located in offices on theactual campus or networked to the school or district by service agreements. Conditions supporting school-based management as a governancemechanism. Promise", 1996, p. Lack of minority parent involvement in a child's education is oftenperceived by teachers and administrators as disinterest, or worse,abandonment of responsibility. Available:http://www.ed.gov/pubs/CPRE/fb2sbm.html. Available:http://www.vocserve.berkeley.edu/MDS-885/MDS-885-Compleme.html. Over the past decade, many school districts haveimplemented this method of managing school budgeting, curriculum, andpersonnel decisions" (Oswald, 1995, p. School-based management looked like a good idea when it wasannounced as the next cure for the modern school. And it can shake-up adull listless school, infusing it with enthusiasm in a much more meaningfulway than can top-down governance ("School-based...Promise", 1996, p. (Occasionally, theschool counselor was referred to as a team member (Perry, 1992, pp. Available:http://www.ed.gov/pubs/SER/Diversity/summlit.html. 3). (1998). What are the budgeting practices in effective site-based managedschools? /ed344329.html. School-based management owes at least part of its roots to thebusiness concept of total quality management, which asserts that decisionsmade closer to the actual product will produce a better product.Translated into school district language, the quality of the educationalexperience provided for students will improve if a partnership comprised ofteachers, parents, business leaders and school leaders is the entity thatcreates the decisions affecting students and schools. Parents and community members will be moresupportive of schools because they have more of a say" (Oswald, 1995, p.1). Arguments pro and con, notwithstanding, urban schools may best benefitfrom SBM in one major respect: its potential to enfranchise families,particularly minority families and students. Hinkle, J. School-based Management: Promise and process. The board's primary duty is to support the process, and to that end,the National School Boards Association recommends that school districtscreate policies that focus the attention of decision-making teams ondeveloping and implementing plans for improving student learning; creatinga measurable vision and an action plan; and adopting policies that ensurecohesion and continuity over time (National School, 1994, pp. Managing change throughschool-based management. 1). Available:http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed38495 .html. 3). Educational Leadership, 53, 16-19. Social workers can: 1. 1-2). Principals play an important role in the implementationof SBM and successful schools boast principals who are "seen as effectiveleaders...active in managing the change process" ("School-based...Promise",1996, p. On the other hand,it could be argued that asking parents to accept greater responsibility forthe operations of the school and insisting that teachers donate extra hoursof committee service in addition to their usual class time, constitutesmore than enough stress to go around. 4). Despite the glowing, democracy-tinged arguments in favor of SBM, it isnot clear that SBM accomplishes any substantial changes; in fact, there is"virtually no evidence that SBM translates into improved studentperformance" (Summers & Johnson, as quoted in Oswald, 1995). Thereare approximately 13 million Mexican Americans in the United States(Chavkin & Gonzalez, 1995, p. B. L. 6). Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research & Improvement,U.S. Quite the contrary, I willgladly gobble up every new idea that comes down the pike if it looks likeit might help to improve what we euphemistically refer to as the "humancondition". No longer could the district be the rainmaker or issue fiats,mandating ALL the rules, policies and budget decisions. (1996, October). Schools that are changing to SBM are advised to ascertain thatthere is a firm and long-term "commitment to SBM at the state, district andschool levels from the outset; seek out a qualified SBM consultant; bewilling to accept that during the transition mistakes will be made; andreward stakeholders for performance" (Oswald, 1995, p. Perry, N. Accountability presents its own set of problems: "A school may wantauthority over decisions, but the public (and state statutes) will stillhold the school board accountable for the results of those decisions. Phi Delta Kappan, 77, 22-26. Complementary education reform organizations. Promote appropriate professional referrals for youth and/or families; 1. In summary, the analysis informs us that: 1. Nonetheless, I hardly thinkthat it is necessary to give the community the keys to the school in orderto empower and involve parents. Social Work inEducation, 14, 16 -164. Washington, DC: Office ofEducational Research & Improvement, U.S. It seems as thoughthe tradewinds deliver the latest "new and improved" idea for reform,consequently, seasoned veterans in the "classrooms and central offices,know at heart that 'this too shall pass' or can be gotten around orovercome. I naively thought thatdistricts were embarking on a plan, a well-thought out plan, and not a pie-in-the-sky promise. 1). Using the standards for exemplary schools and the existing researchinto corporate decentralization, researchers have evaluated more than tenyears of SBM implementation. Introduce or create community links to support families; 1. The research also indicates that vision is a key partner in a ventureas large scale as transitioning to SBM. T. Roles reflect values, particularly theroles assigned to principals, teachers, and parents, and those roles wouldhave to change. Rather the superintendent is encouragedto continue to "facilitate the decisions made at the school level, andprovide technical assistance when a school has difficulty translating thedistrict's vision into high-quality programs" (Myers & Stonehill, 1993, p.2). Improve morale of teachers and nurture new leadership at all levels (Myers & Stonehill, 1993, pp. Family counseling in the schools.Eugene, OR: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management. Educational reform has been gaining momentum for fifty years: "Fromthe wake-up call of Sputnik in 1957, Americans have been examining theireducational systems with increasing regularity...the 198 s lighted a torchthat was carried to every state in the Union...the 199 s heralded a...lookat the roots" (Perry, 1992, p. F., & Gonzalez, D. The very structure of public educationhas come under scrutiny, giving birth to a movement determined torestructure the systems that deliver education to our youth. 1).As tauted, school-based management creates numerous opportunities foradministration and teaching staff to be "more responsive to students andtheir families...provides a context for substantive parent involvement...and influences teachers' relationships with children" (Cross & Reitzug,1996, pp. 1). 8). Five key issues in restructuring. Available:http://www.ed.gov/pubs/OR/ConsumerGuides/baseman.html. They wait out the innovators...The more things change, the morethey stay the same" (Meier, 1998, p. 9). J., & Briggs, K. Encourage a constructive SBM committee dynamic that can assist in producing quality work; 1. 1). Ultimately, the argument for parent involvementrests on two benefits to children: better attitudes toward school andhigher grades" (Oswald, 1997, p. Conduct cultural sensitivity training for SBM committees and in classrooms; 1. 3). 1-8), has been viewed asvery nearly the panacea for troubled schools and the tool that can createpositive learning environments for students. Available:http://www.ed.gov/pubs/SER/SchBasedMgmt/promise.html. (1998, January). 1). Strategies", 1996, p. Available:http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed388489.html. S. 1). 1 ) is a baseline for evaluating SBM schools. The first decade of SBM implementation has come to a close and thereality is that SBM imposes a lesser degree of change on the school boardand the superintendent than originally conceived; in fact, the body leastaffected by SBM is the school board. (1992, December). ED 344 329). SBM does not change the legal governance systemof schools, and school boards do not give up authority by sharing" (Myers &Stonehill, 1993, p. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 3).As an alternative to comprehensive structural reorganization, currentresearch informs us that small self-managing units with lump-sum budgetsfor local needs may be the best SBM model ("School-based... Inasmuch as the role of the superintendent has undergone markedchanges over the last several years (having nothing to do with SBM per se),the role is not overhauled in SBM. Focus accountability for decisions; 1. Schools employing SBM as both a system of management and a statementof values have a vehicle for educating parents and teachers to therealities of cultural and linguistic diversity and involving parents andcaretakers in the process of educating their children/charges. Available: http://www.ed.gov/pubs/SER/SchBasedMgmt.himodel2.html. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research &Improvement, U.S. Businessresearch indicates that the power to make binding decisions and policies;the skills, knowledge and materials needed to do the job; fiscalinformation about the organization; and rewards for performance are the keyresources that must be decentralized throughout the organization in orderto maximize improvement ("School-based...Strategies", 1996, pp. Bottom-up, in the context of SBM, implies a change in the way things are donebeginning with the way parents are enfranchised and teachers are utilized. However, I do not, as a general rule, grab at straws blindly.In my opinion, it is important to evaluate new ideas; and therein lies theproblem with SBM: It doesn't seem that anyone was doing any evaluating evenas late as 1996. Department of Education. SBM, with its idealistic implications for locally-created curriculum("Generating Curriculum", 1996, pp. Financial support must be provided to make training and time for regular staff meetings available; 1. higher order thinking), legislating schoolvouchers, and, of particular interest over the last decade, a bottom-to-topreorganization of management, often referred to as school-based management(SBM). Common Purpose: Strengthening Families andNeighborhoods to Rebuild America. NY: Anchor Books (Doubleday). Principal, 74, 14-17. 2). The Coalition of Essential Schools, which began in response to astudy conducted from 1979 to 1984 identifying the problems of secondaryeducation, "advocates restructuring from the bottom up because it believesthat there is no recipe for reform--all schools are different, as are thepopulations with which they work" ("Complementary", 1998, p. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. (Barely discussed inthe early literature are the concepts of accountability and performancemeasurement.) Some school districts have preferred to jump in with both feet,adopting a sink or swim attitude toward the process; others began withsomething as small as an advisory council; but "most begin restructuring bydeveloping a project or projects. 1). (1996, October).Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research &Improvement, U.S. A. Research hasnot found "a link between SBM and gains in student academic achievement,lower dropout rates, increased attendance, and reduced disciplinaryproblems" (Oswald, 1995, p. With this in mind, SBM becomesboth an open door through which community members can peek at what ishappening in the school (or an entryway for involvement) and amirror reflecting what is actually happening in the community outside thecampus. 1-2). Chavkin, N. High Involvement Framework, The. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research &Improvement, U.S. (1996,October). The Department of Education funded an assessment of school-basedmanagement, which stated, "So far, there is scant evidence that schools get better just because decisions are made by those closer to the classroom. I read the newspapers and I know what is going on in the schoolsystems. Eugene, OR: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management. Eugene,OR: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management. After all, most of theseprofessionals have advanced degrees in education or administration, whichimplies an enhanced level of knowledge; the principals of my youth seemedto be founts of wisdom; and the school districts I attended were interestedin educating students using the most creative and effective techniques.Surely, I hear the voice in my head say, they make it a habit to thinktwice about implementing new ideas. Peer decision-makingrests on "restoring levels of mutual trust we seem inclined to abandonaltogether--to our peril" (Meier, 1998, p. 288). SBM implies fundamentalchanges in the role of the teacher: extending his or her focus to include"participating in shaping the school environment, creating the schoolvision, working with other stakeholders to determine goals and objectives,and taking responsibility for resource allocation and use" ("School-based... Enfranchising teachers, indeed, "teacher empowerment andaccountability are major ingredients of SBM. Across the nation, we find that some principals are movingaway from being the primary instructional leader; others see themselves asthe primary conveyor of a strong instructional vision; still others seethemselves as change agents, staff motivators, team cheerleaders, and/orprotectors of their teachers' best interests ("School-based...Promise",1996, pp. The United States has a student population that is more diverse, bothculturally and linguistically, than at "any time since the early decades ofthis century...more than one-fifth of school-age children and youth comefrom language minority families...about 43 percent of students with limitedEnglish proficiency are immigrants" ("School Reform", 1995, p. ED 347 475). (1993, January). (1992, December). 1-11). Examples include new governance models,block scheduling, integrated curriculum, or technology labs" (Conley, 1992,p. Stateand district policies may also require school board and districtinvolvement" (Oswald, 1995, p. School reform and student diversity: Summary review of literature.(1995, September). Principals are under the most pressure to change. ED 384 95 ). It can beargued that "change" is a system in its own right, toward which a positiveattitude is a critical precondition if SBM is to have any hope ofsucceeding. That may be the truth in some cases, butmore often it is the result of parents' cultural differences regardingtheir expectations of themselves as parents, of their children as students,and of the teaches as purveyors of wisdom and knowledge. School and district staff must be given administrative training, but also must learn how to adjust to new roles and channels of communication; 1. This doesnot come as news to those who understand that many teachers feeloverburdened by society's expectations of the role they must fill and therigorous demands of meeting the school's academic and social objectives.Consequently, there is some talk of providing incentive pay, paidsabbaticals, reduced workloads for grantwriting, and the like, for teacherswho participate in SBM teams and councils ("School-based...Strategies",1996, p. Los Angeles, CA: The School-Based ManagementProject, University of Southern California. Washington, DC:Office of Educational Research & Improvement, U.S. Adding to this baseline is a body of research in the private sector,where decentralization has been in operation for several decades. Eugene, OR: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management. School-based management is a process that, in order to succeed, mustbe implemented with the understanding that success (or failure) will takeboth time and equal doses of top-to-bottom support and bottom-to-topcommitment. Available:http://www.ed.gov/pubs/SER/SchBasedMgmt/himodel4.html. In fact, Hispanic youths are more thantwice as likely to be undereducated than all groups combined" (Chavkin &Brown, 1992, p. ED 347 491). Thetraditional participants in the educational process, specifically,principals, teachers, students and parents, are given "greater control overthe education process by giving them responsibility for decisions about thebudget, personnel, and the curriculum" (Myers & Stonehill, 1993, p. Available: Error! Earlier literature (Wohlstetter & Briggs, 1994; Wohlstetter, Smyer, &Mohrman, 1994; Robertson, 1993; Wohlstetter & Mohrman, 1993) was often moreconcerned with the politics of restructuring than the how-to. Develop and coordinate intervention programs for at-risk youth and their families; 1. Promoters of SBM hope that, given enough time, resistant principalswill discover what many of their peers have already recognized, namely,that it is imperative to redefine their role as that of a facilitator. 2). 1). Give the entire school community a voice in key decisions; 1. 1). Still, there are others who maintain that SBM, "under the rubric ofcommunity participation, decentralization or teacher empowerment, can betraced back to the 196 s. Districts embarking on SBM should bevery clear about the need for change and the ultimate purpose of the changeprocess" ("School-based...Strategies", 1996, p. Strictly speaking, "as aform of governance, SBM will not in itself generate improvement in schoolperformance...SBM is simply a means through which school-level decisionmakers can implementvarious reforms that can improve teaching and learning" (Wohlstetter, 1995,p. Department of Education.Available: http://www.ed.gov/pubs/SER/SchBasedMgmt/generate.html. 1). A. (1992, December). 2). Work to enhance communication between SBM team members; 1. Available:http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed347482.html. (1993, January). And most certainly, and perhaps most importantly, no longercould parents/guardians be simply the adults the principal called when allelse had failed with their child. SBM will "not be successful unlessa compelling case is made for it. 1-3). S. I assumed that someonehad looked below the surface, that maybe a study, or at the very least, apreliminary investigation had been conducted. School social workersbuilding a multiethnic family-school-community partnership. 1) and the U.S. Provide guidance opportunities regarding positive social skills development as part of the regular school program; 1. (1995, January). Act as a liaison between schools, the community, social service and mental health agencies; 1. (1994). The council members must be able towork together on planning and budget matters" (Myers & Stonehill, 1993, p.4). Forgingpartnerships between Mexican American parents and the schools. The local community may be the last availableresource for schools faced with censorship issues, religious controversies,reduced funding, dwindling middle-class families, increasingly moreimpoverished families, and declining student achievement ("Local", 1998, p.1). How tobuild ownership in city schools. (1996, October). Surely they considered all of theimplications of something as large scale as structural reorganization. Restructuring is not a simple task and merely announcing that adistrict has decided to adopt school-based management will not suffice.Furthermore, "restructuring is not occurring primarily because educatorssimply want to improve schools. The search for new resources of funds, ideas, and energy is an ongoingstruggle for urban schools. Theymaintain, in the Education Research Consumer Guide dated January 1993, thatschool-based management can: 1. If they are to have any hope of succeeding, they must understandthat "restructuring requires a systems perspective...restructuring israrely accomplished through a series of disconnected projects, no matterhow innovative" (Conley, 1992, p. Attitude is an important component of SBM, and understandably, "school-level folks are as skeptical about the capacity of any of these top-downrecipes to make a significant impact on the minds of teachers and childrenas policy-level folks are about the idiosyncratic bottom-up ones" (Meier,1998, p. 2-3)and family systems therapy was encouraged as a necessary skill forsuccessful counseling interventions (Hinkle, 1992, pp. (1996, October). J. An interesting argument for SBM falls into the category ofhow-much-harm-can-it-do: "If juries of our peers will do for deciding life-and-death matters of law, why not juries of our peers to decide life-and-death matters of education?" (Meier, 1998, p. EducationalEvaluation and Policy Analysis, 16, 268-286. Another liability of SBM includes the understanding that"participatory decision-making sometimes creates frustration and is oftenslower than more autocratic methods. (ERICDocument Reproduction Service No. School-based management (SBM) is a "strategy to improve education bytransferring significant decision-making authority from state and districtoffices to individual schools" (Myers & Stonehill, 1993, p. And it has become clear that, regardless of race orethnicity, "traditional grouping and grading practices do not facilitatesuccess for at-risk students...There is increasing tension between meetingthe needs of both 'gifted' and 'at-risk' students within the traditionalorganizational paradigm" (Conley, 1992, p. External pressures and demands areimportant motivators...schools are not 'closed systems' that can decidewhat they want to do" (Conley, 1992, p. Applyingexemplary school standards to public and private schools. Bookmark notdefined. 1). Department of Education. School-based management. ED 336 845).Available: http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed336845.html. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 3). Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research& Improvement, U.S. Eugene, OR: ERIC Clearinghouse on EducationalManagement. Evaluating SBM has run into difficulty because there are manyvariations in how it is practiced, as well as differences in the level ofauthority that have been conferred upon various entities (Oswald, 1995, p.1). Department of Education. Children in protectiveservices: The missing educational link for children in kinship networks.Social Work in Education, 17, 7-15. The parents' role in site-managementteams would parallel that of the teachers on the team, with the democraticconcept of one person, one vote very much in practice. Contrary to their fears, principals have an important role to play inschool-based management. Wohlstetter, P., Smyer, R., & Mohrman, S. Clearly, the "bottom line is that school-based managementis not an end in itself, although research indicates that it can helpfoster an improved school culture and higher-quality decisions" ("School-based...Promise", 1996, p. Getting school-based managementright: What works and what doesn't (Special section: Studies on educationreform). Generating curriculum and instructional innovations through school-based management (abstract). Long-term commitment by teachers on various committees and sub-committees is an integral component of SBM and teacher burnout has been aproblem at some schools ("School-based... Allow competent individuals in the schools to make decisions that will improve learning; 1. These are necessary attitudes in order for SBM to succeed. There are those who maintain that "most conventional school practiceswere developed to educate the typical American student of the past: white,middle-class, and living with both parents" (Cross & Reitzug, 1996, p. Consequently, SBM, when implemented in a thoughtful and progressivemanner, and with a profound understanding of what it truly is and what itcan potentially accomplish, may be a helpful technique for creatingcommunity involvement. Oswald, L. Principals,as the primary facilitators for SBM success, must seek a partnershipbetween the school and the family because "all children learn best whenparents and teachers share similar visions, when there is a 'sense ofconstancy' between home and school...That sense of constancy, however, ismuch harder to achieve today than it used to be" (Schorr, 1997, p. School-based management andstudent performance. (1998, April 15). No longer could teachers be merelydeliveryboys and deliverygirls, stocking children's minds with society'sidea of necessary information, and always at the beck-and-call of theprincipal. References Assessment of school-based management: Results and discussion. (1995, September). C. Eugene, OR:ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management. 2). 3). SBM must have the strong support of school staff; 1. Though their role is changing, it is not changingin compliance to an arbitrary list of rules intended to diminish theirposition, but rather their role is metamorphosing based on what is neededin the local community and how those needs are reflected by the schools'populations. Valuing diversity in the schools: Thecounselor's role. (1993). ED 347 482). Wittmer, J. Lead to realistic budgeting as parents and teachers become more aware of the school's financial status, spending limitations, and the cost of its programs; and, 1. Myers, D., & Stonehill, R. What troubles me the most is the fact that SBM does not have ademonstrable impact on the education that our children are receiving. ED 388 489). (1996, October). No wonder some of the teachers I know feel likethey're drowning in a sea of snake oil. Census Bureau projects thatby the year 2 , 33 percent of theschool-age population in the United States will consist of minorities(Chavkin & Brown, 1992, p. Principals are no longer as free as they once were to do as theyplease: "Principals viewed the effects of restructuring on themselvesalmost exclusively in terms of power. (1992, July). Leadership News (a publication of the AmericanAssociation of School Administrators), 1-2. (1992, May). After reviewing almost 2 documents oneresearcher asserts that "site-based management in most instances does notachieve its stated objectives" (Malen, as quoted in Petersen, 1991) Prior research "and the experiences of a myriad of schools, makes itclear that a shift to school-based management does not guarantee subsequentschool improvement" ("Generating", 1996, p. Wohlstetter, P., & Briggs, K. Available:http://www.ed.gov/pubs/SER/SchBasedMgmt/generat2.html. Then, as well as now, reformers often adoptedSBM for ideological reasons as a means of democratizing schools" (Malen,Ogawa, & Kranz, as cited in "High", 1996). Strategies",1996, p. 2). Every new educational trend and policy decision advanced over the lastfew decades has had both its upside and its downside. Contrary to one of the pro-arguments, group empowerment may not be"the most effective means of school management. Phi DeltaKappan, 79, 358-363. It can be helpful tool for involvingfamilies, particularly those that feel marginalized due to poverty,linguistic limitations, or family circumstances. Nor will SBM besuccessful in the absence of an instructional guidance system, "whichincludes a state or district curriculum framework along with the school'steaching and learning objectives and the means by which they are to beaccomplished" ("Conditions", 1996, p. The Intercultural Development Research Association reports that"Hispanics, Native Americans, and African Americans are more likely to beundereducated than white Americans.
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