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FEMALES IN SPORTS.
Term Paper ID:26830
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Essay Subject:
Examines the influence of social norms on female participation in sports. Self-image, public mores, compared to males, laws, social value of sports, socioeconomics.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines the influence of social norms on female participation in sports. Self-image, public mores, compared to males, laws, social value of sports, socioeconomics.
Paper Introduction:
Introduction
This research will examine the influence of social norms on the participation of females in athletic activity. The research will examine studies showing how strongly social expectations and socially determined sex roles limit participation of adolescent and adult females in physical activity, and then discuss ways in which cultural pressures are reflected in female-student behavior in elementary school physical-education classes and school-recess activities. Based on this research and on observations of behavior at an elementary school, this study will suggest possible changes in the physical education curriculum that can encourage activity for girls and help them connect it to positive social experience.
A 1997 government report on research into female
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The role that society plays in shaping these images is extremelyimportant. They get nosocial benefit from participating in it. This wasdifferent from the values connected to men's sports, such as high scoresand athletic skill. The idea that sports is mainly for boys butnot for girls is an important part of the larger competitive socialpicture. Introduction This research will examine the influence of social norms on theparticipation of females in athletic activity. school after school replacedgirls' interschool athletics with intramural play days" (Brown, 1996, p.6 ). But even though bodies can become accustomed to newphysical demands, social pressure comes up again because of the fear ofappearing awkward and unskilled at physical movement. The Women's Division condemned young women's sportscompetition and said that all women's intercollegiate and interscholasticathletics should be banned. Thus they are more likely to develop cardiovascular diseases(Bunker & others, 1997; Flores, 1995). Does interpersonal attraction to thin mediapersonalities promote eating disorders? It only pushed girls' sports into the background becausethe values they were supposed to adopt were less valuable to the societythat wanted them to adopt those values. (1997, Fall). Promoting the idea ofgirls' athletics as physical activity conflicted with the idea of girlsactually deriving some personal payoff from the activity. This fear is muchmore common among girls than boys. Physical activity and the incidence of coronary heart disease.Annual Review of Public Health, 8, 253-288. Throughout the 193 s, the Women's Division of theNational Amateur Athletic Foundation, headed by Mrs. Herbert Hoover,opposed women's Olympic competition and interscholastic sports for girls.The Women's Division supported "play" and "high standards and ideals" ofnoncompetitive Field Days, which gave awards for Best Posture (Brown,1996): "Throughout the 192 s, when competitive sports was hailed as 'anessential part' of a boy's education . Ironically, however, women who do not participate inphysical activity may also fail the test of society because they will failto achieve the body image of which society approves. Arena Review, 13, 77-96. When that tendency is combined with theemphasis in exercise classes on weight loss and personal appearance, thenself-consciousness becomes even more pronounced (Frederick & Shaw, 1995). Taking the track. " AmericanEnterprise, 9, 54-58. This behavior is against their own self-interestbecause of the negative consequences to their good health. Bordo (1993) describes women's efforts toward making their bodiesfit the ideal in terms of social roles. Obesity is more prevalent among African Americans andHispanics of both sexes than among whites. Morality for women and girls was also equated with femininity as asocial value (Lenskyi, 1982). Henderson and Winn (1996)describe a number of studies that show how this translates into a"constraint" against being physically active. That is because the criticism is aimed notat the physical threat but at the one who would expose herself to thatthreat by exercising all alone or in a dangerous area. Purpura (1992) believes that this is why so manygirls drop out of physical activities in their teens, even if they werephysically active as children. It is important tounderstand the reasons behind the decrease in females' physical activitybecause of the need to bring those who are not active back into a programof more healthy exercise. Out of bounds: Women, sport and sexuality. (199 ). Instead, all sports activities for girls andwomen should stress the "educational value of the game in mind rather thanwinning"(Burchenal & Others, 1923, p. (1994). Lenskyi, H. Meanwhile, Bunker & Others (1997)refer to research showing that some minority groups do not toleratebehavior such as physical activity that goes against "gender stereotypessuch as 'tomboyism.'" But if physical activity is limited and fat or "bodymass index," is high, this can lead to cardiovascular disease in laterlife. Brown, C. Brown. In a perfect world, society would stopsending mixed messages about the benefits of physical activity for girlsand for boys, and it would start rewarding females for the achievements insports and exercise that they make instead of punishing them for theirfailures to measure up to a standard that keeps changing all the time. An important element of the social pressures that discourage girlsfrom physical activity is that the pressures begin in early childhood. Competition is something boys do. (1995, March). A 19 9 manual for school sports programs for girls shows how deep theproblem is. Meanwhile, it is obvious thatthere is no social value placed on participation as such. (1977). Reasons that females drop out of sportsactivities as they enter adolescence adulthood may be social pressuresrather than a simple loss of interest in exercise. Pinkowish, M.D. Ironically, bothdisorders have a negative impact on the individual's heart health, and bothdisorders are connected with female adolescent insecurities. Physical activity and sport in thelives of girls: Physical and mental health dimensions from aninterdisciplinary approach. These mixed messages are not just a part of themodern culture. Denial of power in televisedwomen's sports. It seems to play a role in girls'decision to be physically inactive even though physical activity is animportant way of not getting fat. PhysicalActivity and Fitness Research Digest, 2, 1-7. Burchenal, E., Burns, M., McKee, M., & Sawtelle, L. Harrison, K. Orenstein, P. If such a value could not befound, then women's athletics did not have social approval. Body image as a leisureconstraint: Examining the experience of aerobic exercise classes for youngwomen. J. A study of grade-school children found that both girls and boys think girls are "notsupposed to be" big, strong, powerful, because if they are that offendsothers, especially boys (Bunker & Others, 1997). Physical activityin general and organized sports in particular are not considered suitablefor women in the same way and for the same reasons as they are consideredsuitable for men. Becauseparticipation is something girls do, and participation is not anaccomplishment. A growing amount of research has connected the physical activity ofadolescent and adult females to the roles and attitudes that societyassociates with being female. The danger is notonly physical but also social. 24; Duncan &Hasbrook, 1988; Kane & Snyder, 1989; Metheny, 1965; Young, 199 ). There is abundant evidence in the professionalliterature that girls and women are in a high-risk situation for theirphysical well-being if they do not exercise properly. (1997). The gender stereotyping that starts in young childhood is just asimportant to girls' physical activity in adolescence as the patterns ofexercise and diet are important to adult heart disease. As girls get furtherinto their teens, their level of physical activity may decline. Berkeley: University of California Press. In other words, anyviolence would be her fault for not making a good social judgment. asliberated, self-determined individuals (Whitehead, 1998, p. In community sports, girls' teams battle boys' for rink, pool, and arena time. Women in the Olympics: An unresolved problem. Department of Healthand Human Services. Boston: Northeastern University Press. Lenskyj, H. Ueberhorst (Eds.). These opinions, which are shaped in childhood and which become firmin adolescence, may not be good for the women themselves. . First, consider mass-media depictions of the most successful women as the thinnest, which"foster and reinforce a social climate in which thinness is consideredessential to beauty, especially for women" (Harrison, 1997, p. Physical activity and body image of femaleadolescents. MPLS-St. However, obesity is increasing, not decreasing, in the population asa whole. American History, 31, 42-61. The main risk of not exercising is heart disease,and adults who engage in physical activity and who are not overweightgenerally have less heart disease (Powell & Others, 1987). 94 ). The girls of gen X. At the college level, women athletes receive only a third of all athletic scholarships (Steiner, 1997, p. This manual goes into great detail on the need for women'ssports programs to start their events on time and control discipline of thecrowd. Researchinto "twentysomething" females, "who have grown up with more freedom,opportunity, and choice than their mothers or grandmothers . Physical activity and women's health. 61-86. But the mandate isclear: If women can be persuaded to engage in healthy exercise and fitnessprocedures, then it may be possible to persuade society to tolerate thefact that women are doing so. Thusavoiding that criticism or avoiding all the worry about violence meansavoiding the physical activity altogether. 938). (1989). Recreation Canada, 47, 33-38. Although children may engage inactivities coded for the other sex, the social norms that have beenestablished for each gender, and the sense of identity that these norms mayfoster, are a powerful influence (Bunker & Others, 1997, p. Bartky, S. (1995, March-April). That is a major idea runningthrough a 1997 government-sponsored report on females in sports. But girls and women who do not fit into the social expectationsabout what women should look like and how they should behave are also at acrisis point. Whyte, L.B. A 1997 government report on research into female participation insports concluded that regular physical activity could decrease the risk ofadult obesity, coronary heart disease, and osteoporosis and increase mentalhealth and self-esteem. (1988). Foucault, femininity and the modernization ofpatriarchal power. Thus there is a sense ofurgency in the background of understanding the phenomenon. Henderson, K.A., & Bialeschki, M.D. Fears for personal safety can prevent females from exercisingalone or in places or at times considered unsafe (Whyte & Shaw, 1994;Henderson & Winn, 1996). Many of these problems can be seen in the 199 s aswell because of girls' negative attitudes about being physically active ona regular basis. (199 , September 5). Physical activity and sport in the lives ofgirls. American Physical Education Review, 27, 77-8. Parenting,6, 161. Young, I.M. Journal of Applied RecreationResearch, 19, 5-21. Sociology of Sport Journal, 5, 1-21. 15). Life for girls. Obesity--A chronic disease. Thiswas based on the fact that no demands had been made for organizedactivities for girls. In either case, what is happening is that a socialexplanation is being made for the physical behavior. Women's leisure: An exploratory studyof fear of violence as a leisure constraint. Even though "sport has helped to change theimage, status and even the shape of women" (Riordan, 1985, p. (1996, May/June). and Shaw, S.M. However, that role can be very confused. : U. Holt and Company. . Shaw, S.M. (1998, October). Females and physicalactivity. (1996). Pipher, M.B. (1996, August). New York: Doubleday. Genderroles in society create expectations about how males and females aresupposed to behave. Bordo, S. It also seems to play a role in thegirls' decision to take on anorexic or bulimic eating habits. Steiner, A. Research in 19 6 and 191 into girls' and boys' playing habitsconcluded that girls were not as interested in sports as boys were. (1998, January). Public Health Reports, 11 , 189-93. This same study describedsocial isolation of girls identified in school as "tomboys." In otherwords, the opinion of boys may be even more important to girls at a veryyoung age than the girls' own sense of well-being because of physicalactivity. Why? Through the 192 s, controversy surrounded sports for girls. As agroup, females do not receive encouragement and support from adults fortheir participation in physical activities in the way that males do(Henderson & Winn, 1996). According to Spears(1977), the entire history of women's participation in the Olympic Gameswas one in which social status and politics, as well as Western ideas aboutfemininity, were always an issue. Oneimportant study reported: [O]nly 65% of girls aged 14 through 16 years reported 3 or more bouts of vigorous activity per week, whereas 86% of age-matched boys achieved this level. Washington, D. Black adolescent girls are twiceas likely to be fat as white adolescent girls, and they are less likely toexercise. But for females, physical activity does not necessarily have thesame kind of social approval as dieting or thinness or beauty. 78). Dudley, G., and Kellor, F.A. Eating disorders: Not for women only. Relationship of physical activity and television watchingwith body weight and level of fatness among children: Results from theThird National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. ModernOlympics. Feminism and Foucault: Reflections on resistance. 53), themodern western view of women in sport, particularly in mass media, has beenthat the femininity of women athletes is in doubt. Weller, Mrs. C.F. Anybody who has ever heard the words "She wasasking for it" can understand why a female would not want to expose herselfto physical dangers while engaging in physical activity. Paul Magazine, 25, 15-16. But as of 1999: most high schools don't offer the same athletic opportunities for girls as they do for boys. As of 1972, Title IX of the Civil Rights Act mandated equal sportsfunding for girls and boys. This will create "deeper interest in games" and "lessens theskepticism with which men regard women's activities--all of the utmostvalue to the development of a good standard of athletics" (Dudley & Kellor,19 9, p. 155). They receive encouragement for being cooperativeand expressive, even though this encouragement does not translate intoincreased social benefit. In other words, the girls are not taking good medical or exerciseadvice. Schoolgirls. (1993). Statistics on ethnic background and low-income groups show that theproblem of physical inactivity is stronger among racial minorities (Bunker& Others, 1997). Gutin, B., Basch, C., Shea, S., Contento, I., DeLozier, M., Rips, J.,Irigoyen, M., & Zybert, P. These are the same girls and women, and they are being pulledin opposite directions by their need for health and their need for socialacceptance.Methods Research that has been done into the gender-role formation ofchildren, plus research into the effects of failing to participate inphysical activity supports the idea that girls and young women behave inways that respond to social cues and pressures. (1994). In otherwords, the society places value on beauty even when the main benefit ofphysical activity is health. S. 27). Parks & Recreation, 3 , 7 -79. The result is to discourage girls from physicalactivity. However, there isalso abundant evidence that social pressures, especially the pressure onwomen to be seen as living and behaving in the world according to generallyaccepted standards of femininity, may be even more powerful in discouraginggood exercise. Further analyses (data not shown) revealed that 8.7% of the 14- to 16-year-old girls reported less than 1 bout of vigorous activity per week (Andersen & Others, 1992, p. Insecurity about personal appearance increasesduring adolescence, and teenage girls seem to be at highest risk fordropping out of exercise programs (Henderson & Winn, 1996). Fitness and wellness for young women: The imageparadox. Femininity first: Sport and physicaleducation for Ontario girls, 189 -193 . Even though thisopinion is not accurate, it influences some girls not to participate inphysical activity. 158). And the self-esteemsuffers all over again, further discouraging healthy physical activity. " Canadian Journal of the Historyof Sport, 13, 4-17. Bunker, L.K., Duncan, M.C., Freedson, P., Greenberg, D., Oglesby, C.,Sabo, D., & Wiese-Bjornstal, D. Why? (19 9). (1988). 23). Thelearning of proper social roles for the sexes that takes place in theearliest childhood years is in the background of these pressures. References Andersen, R.E., Crespo, C.J., Bartlett, S.J., Cheskin, L.J., & Pratt, M.(1998, March 25). P. Henderson, K.A., & Winn, S. Purpura, M. Yet this very same manual goes on to say that competitiveevents make "contests, awarding prizes and stimulating competition displaceall other functions" (Dudley & Kellor, 19 9, p. Toronto:Women's Press. (1998, January). In fact, women in the early decades of the century wereactively discouraged from being interested in scores and skills, while menwere encouraged to be interested in them. (1998, May). Aninteresting area of research study would be the connection between eatingdisorders, which can lead to loss of too much weight, and failure to takepart in physical activity, which can lead to obesity. Connotations of movement in sport and dance.Dubuque, IA: W.C. 155) of the culture internalized by girlswith anorexia who fear "growing up to be mature, sexually developed, andpotentially reproductive women" (p. Quinby (Eds.). Physical activity was encouraged for women and girls at this time onlyif it was compatible with social morality (Henderson & Bialeschki, 1995;Brown, 1996). The Playground, 7, 199-2 7. Inother words, girls and women who are not physically active are at a crisispoint. (1992, September). (1923). (1913). Metheny, E. Of course, thisadvice was not taken. Both obesity andeating disorders, which can have negative health effects, have beenconnected to the fact that "adolescent females are generally more negativeabout their bodies and are concerned with physical beauty and maintainingan ideal, thin shape (as identified by media and societal images" (Rhea,1998, p. The report continues that girls choose sports "that appear to be moregender-appropriate: cooperative, aesthetically pleasing, expressive,graceful activities such as cheerleading, gymnastics, diving, swimming,tennis, figure skating and dance" (Bunker & Others, 1997, p. On the other hand, Henderson and Winn (1996) makereference to research (Orenstein, 1994) showing that the culture does notvalue qualities considered to be female (nurturance, cooperation,intuition). New York: H. Rhea, D.J. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Boys whoreceive encouragement for being aggressive and competitive do receiveincreased social benefit because of the social rewards for successfulcompetitiveness. According toBunker & Others (1997), adolescent girls' social standing is connected tohow successfully they fit with feminine appearance stereotypes. Supportersand coaches of women's sports competition faced charges that sports wouldmake girls less womanly. Throwing like a girl and other essays in feministphilosophy and social theory. Adolescentgirls whose bodies and emotions are changing fall into "a social anddevelopmental Bermuda Triangle" (Pipher, 1994, p. Flores, R. Few boys or girls reported 1 or less bouts of vigorous activity per week, with the exception of 2 .1% of 14- to 16-year-old girls reporting this level of inactivity. An important part of that problem is the declining physicalactivity of adolescent women. (1995). Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 69, 27-31. The history of society's response to physically active females showshow powerful negative stereotypes are in shaping women's opinion of certainbehavior patterns and certain activities that are socially "suitable" forwomen. Even though today's experts in physical educationand children's health urge young people of both sexes to get exercise andparticipate in sports, statistics show that many children and adolescentsare overweight and inactive and that the condition continues intoadulthood. Veryyoung children (four years old) can tell the gender difference betweenplaying with dolls, picking flowers, dressing up, skipping, and dancing(for girls), and competitive games like football, baseball, basketball,soccer, hockey, and karate (for boys) (Bunker, 1997). If the goodhealth of the female population is to be preserved, it may be possible tochange the social cues that females respond to so that they can beencouraged to participate in healthy physical activity. On the other hand, female adolescents and young adults make up about9 % of the eating-disordered population (Eating, 1998). (1997, July). Partly thiscan be traced to the mixed messages of the culture regarding physicalactivity for females. Girls learn "a specific repertoire of gestures, postures andmovements" (Bartky, 1988, p. In general, worried about their appearance to others, girlsconsider their physical appearance too tall, too fat, too something, intheir failing to match ideal images. 64) that can be quite different from that ofboys; early on, girls discover that stereotypic femininity requiresdelicate, restrained movements (e.g., crossing the legs, folding the arms)and limited use of space (Henley, 1977; Young, 199 ). They are at least as old as the twentieth century. According to the 1997 government report (Bunker & Others, 1997), thosewho do not have "movement literacy" or minimal competency in accomplishingcertain moves may find it very hard to reform their bodies by learning newand different ways of moving around, even when their good health demandsthat they do so. (1989). (1965). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. However, it has been pointed out that facilities wereoften never open to girls in the first place. Graham and H. (1985) The social emancipation of women through sport.British Journal of Sports History, 2, 53-61. . Inclusive physicalactivity programming for girls and women. Frederick, C.J., & Shaw, S.M. 481).Therefore, there is a social pressure on females to be physicallybeautiful. Kane, M.J., & Snyder, E. Cornwall, New York:Leisure Press. According to Henderson andBialeschki (1995), one expert (Weller, 1913) advised boys to seek "gentler"activities, a reference to how rough boys' sports could be. Another social block to women's lack of participation in physicalactivity has to do with practical limits to where and when they canexercise. (1994). Henley, N.M. This record of sports programs for girls shows that the culture doesnot seem to value females' participation in sports or female values insports. Sport typing: The social "containment"of women. Girls stop beingenergetic tomboys and start being retiring, as well as depressed and self-critical of their body image. (1977). Body politics: Power, sex and nonverbalcommunication. . (1995). C. The social value of sports lies incompeting and winning. Duncan, M.C., & Hasbrook, C.A. Whitehead, B.D. Overweight prevalence and trends for children and adolescents:The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 1963 to 1991.Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine,149, 1 85-1 91. Recent studies of boys and girls from age 8 to age 16 have showedthat as a group girls do not exercise as much as boys. Leisure Sciences, 17, 57-73. Andif this tolerance and support can be nurtured during childhood, in aphysical education curriculum designed for that purpose, then there is hopethat women's well-being and their level of comfort and security in societycan both be saved. Modesty standards of theperiod also forced girls to wear uncomfortable clothing that was not suitedto physical activity (Henderson & Bialeschki, 1995). What is very important to girls and women is body image, or theappearance of an individual to other people. Report ofthe committee on recommendations regarding inter- and intra-institutionalactivities. I.Diamond & L. Reviving Ophelia: Saving the selves of adolescentgirls. If adolescent and adult females are expectedto fit into a specified sex role in society, this can have an impact notonly on unhealthy eating habits but also on whether they are physicallyactive. However, it seems just as possiblefor those efforts to take the form of eating disorders as exercise wheregirls are concerned. Troiano R.P., Flegal, K.M., Kuczmarski, R.J., Campbell, S.M., & Johnson,C.L. Unbearable weight: Feminism, western culture, and thebody. Parks & Recreation, 31, 28. However, nostudies were found in this research that make a connection between thesetwo extremes or that explain why some girls choose one disorder and somechoose another, to achieve the same result: ideal beauty. The social value connected to women's sports was connected to thesocial image of women as the gentle sex. Thus it should not be surprising if females who take their valuesfrom the culture are not very interested in physical activity. Thus pursuing gentler activities did not make sports for girlsvalued by society. Review of Literature About 1 million Americans are estimated to be overweight (Pinkowish,1998), "despite our nation's intense preoccupation with weight" (Andersen &Others, 1992, p. 54) shows thattheir number one wish is not success or choice or even social standing but"to get and stay thin." One study (Shaw, 1989) found that overweight women and girls, who needhealthy physical activity the most, may not do sports if they are self-conscious because they do not look good in exercise clothing. Or if the society values their participation, it does not valuetheir taking on a competitive attitude. Another factor of importance where this issue isconcerned is that physical inactivity in the modern world seems to bestarting with children at a very young age. It is what is expected. However, this study found that the boys were morephysically active than the girls. This created problems--not only in thedifferences between girls' and boys' sports programs but also in the mindsof the girls themselves. Journal of Broadcasting andElectronic Media, 41, 478-5 . Blood pressure, fitness,and fatness in 5- and 6-year-old children. My personal observations ofelementary-school gym classes and lunchtime athletics is consistent withthis research because the observations show that the behavior starts earlyin a student's life. PatientCare, 15, 29-5 . Muscle andFitness, 59, 124. This translates into a fear ofgetting old, fat, matronly in a society that places high value on beautyand that does not value age, fatness, or matronliness. (1982, December). A sporting chance for girls. 19). Powell, K.E., Thompson, P.D., Caspersen, C.J., and Kendrick, J.S.(1987). Society expects women to makesensible choices about what they do and where and when, and to fit into thesensible group they may have to be less physically active. And girls, especially adolescent girls, doexactly the same thing. However, Bordo refers to"gender associations" (1993, p. Activities such assports that require more vigorous movements and greater use of space areoften socially coded as masculine. The research will examinestudies showing how strongly social expectations and socially determinedsex roles limit participation of adolescent and adult females in physicalactivity, and then discuss ways in which cultural pressures are reflectedin female-student behavior in elementary school physical-education classesand school-recess activities. Dance for health: improving fitness inAfrican American and Hispanic adolescents. That is because the school setting is aplace where teachers have an opportunity to show encouragement and socialapproval for girls who participate (and who are willing to participate) inphysical activity.Conclusion If the current tendency of girls and young women to drop out of sportsand physical-fitness activities continues, then it is possible to predictthat as these people mature into adults they will be burdened by high bloodpressure and heart disease. In a perfect world, society will not only betolerant but helpful and supportive. One study saw significant fat and high blood pressure, plus lowamounts of exercise in Hispanic children as young as five and six years old(Gutin & Others, 199 ). Therefore, changesin the physical education curriculum may be an important way of helping theprogress of women in athletics. Many people have the opinion that sports make girls moremasculine and that athletic girls, especially successful athletes, willbecome lesbians (Lenskyj, 1986; Bunker & Others, 1997). 157). Riordan, J. Wells, C. Based on this research and on observations ofbehavior at an elementary school, this study will suggest possible changesin the physical education curriculum that can encourage activity for girlsand help them connect it to positive social experience. According to the medical experts, physical activity plus a sensiblediet is the best way of keeping thin and staying healthy in general, and itis best to start this kind of program in early childhood (Gutin & Others,199 ). (1986). New York: Ballantine. JAMA, The Journalof the American Medical Association, 279, 938-42. JAMA, The Journal of theAmerican Medical Association, 264, 1123-1127. Athletic games in the education ofwomen. Spears, B. The heart-disease risk of obesity and "sedentary lifestyles," including watchingtelevision instead of exercising, is the reason that experts say adolescentgirls should be encouraged to do vigorous activity (Troiano & Others,1995).
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