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MANAGEMENT & LEADERSHIP.
Term Paper ID:26958
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Essay Subject:
Overview of management (scientific, human relations, contingency) & leadership (transactional & transformational) approaches.... More...
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7 Pages / 1575 Words
4 sources, 10 Citations,
APA Format
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Paper Abstract:
Overview of management (scientific, human relations, contingency) & leadership (transactional & transformational) approaches.
Paper Introduction:
Organizational Development
As we view the contemporary organization, we do so through the eyes of a participant. The real challenge of organization behavior and development lies in the opportunity to manage uncertainty, change, conflict, and other complexities of organization life that we each experience. As the new Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of your company, characterize the organizational tools that you have available to you to attune your organization, i.e., contingency approach, content and process theories, participative management leading to building effective groups, etc.
Organizational Tools
Early twentieth century industrialists took an engineering approach to management called scientific management. This approach was develop
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Academy ofManagement Review, pp. B. One significant shortcoming of this approach is that much time andeffort must be put toward developing work standards, closely monitoringmany different aspects of the work process, and calculating appropriaterates of pay. Steers, R. The way in which the workers meet those standards isleft to their discretion. 6 1). 345). Cliques were identified by their membership criteria: they did notcontain those who worked above the group's informal norm; those who workedbelow the norm on a regular basis; nor those who informed on other workersto management (Steers, 1991, p. Transformational leaders who use individualstimulation exhibit a high level of awareness of current employee problems. Taken to the extreme, the scientific management approach findsthat there is a single best way to solve a given situation (Klein,Dansereau & Hall, 1994, p. Leaders andsubordinates are viewed as bargaining agents where relative power regulatesan exchange process as benefits are issued and received. The real challenge of organization behavior and developmentlies in the opportunity to manage uncertainty, change, conflict, and othercomplexities of organization life that we each experience. Understanding organizational behavior is particularly important tothose in organizations with workers who are located in several (or many)different facilities. After the Second World War, a new perspective emerged inorganizational behavior. Transformational leadership incorporates transactional leadershipapproaches, but moves beyond them. Ways in which this awareness is created include life experience, theability to handle ambiguity, the ability to handle complexity anduncertainty, and the demonstration of intellectual courage. Added to this are the high pace oftechnological change and the large amount of information that must begenerated and disseminated among subordinates and superiors. This canbe presented to the workers with the challenge for the workers to meet newproduction standards. This resistancemay be shown in slowdowns in productivity when workers are aware that theyare being observed and measured (Jenks, 199 , p. Here, the leader-subordinateinfluencing relationship is one where relative power is used to pursueorganizational and personal goals. To some degree, the humanrelations approach grew out of the emerging field of psychology, andemphasized the importance of motivation and attitudes in explaining workerbehavior. 23). 219). Active transactional leadership usescontingent rewards. Hospital &Health Services Administration, pp. Similarly, CEOs must find ways to create aneffective organization for those situations where there are different payincentives (commissions versus salaries, for examples) within a singleorganization. This approach acknowledged that organizationalbehavior cannot be explained by using the simplistic approaches of eitherthe scientific or the human relations schools. Informal social groups, management-employeerelations, and the interrelationships among the many different parts of thework environment were found to be influential on workers (Jenks, 199 , p.178). If a leaderis unable to provide motivation to the organization, it matters little howimportant the leader's vision is. J., Dansereau, F., & Hall, R. Organizational Tools Early twentieth century industrialists took an engineering approach tomanagement called scientific management. Levelsissues in theory development, data collection and analysis. J. (1991). The contingency approachdid not abandon the search for principles that could be used to explain orpredict behavior within organizations, but it sought to identify theconditions under which specific relationships are likely to exist.Contingency researchers recognize the interdependency of personal andsituational factors in determining employee behavior (Jenks, 1991, p. Effective leaders combine motivationwith their vision, with the result that their essential message isinspirational. 8). Leadership Techniques In addition to these tools, CEOs have the ability to attune theirorganization through their own leadership. Three types of transformationalleadership approaches have been identified: charisma/inspirational,individual stimulation and consideration for the individual (Matey, 1991,p. Introduction to Organizational Behavior. Ethics andequality are emerging as themes for the coming years in the workplace, andconsiderations such as new financing techniques, the global economy, andhealth care issues confront managers with a vast array of issues that werenot dealt with by managers of previous eras. 6 1). O. Typically, the charismatic leader isalso visionary, courageous, value driven, and serves as an agent of changewithin the organization. Failureto accomplish these tasks results in disciplinary action for employees,without consideration for the reason that the new standards were not met.By contrast, a transformational leader may observe that if production isincreased, savings can be realized through lower carrying costs. Theways in which successful leaders achieve this motivation vary from oneindividual to the next, and leaders who are successful in one organizationmay find that they are not successful in others, since the company culturehas much influence over the leadership and motivational styles that areeffective in any particular situation. NewYork: HarperCollins. These studies were conducted over 12 years anddemonstrated that in addition to the job itself, certain factors caninfluence workers' behavior. At the heart of a leader's role is the job of motivation. (1991, Winter). Transformational leadership can lead to significant changes in theorganizations it serves. The approach was largely based on a series of studies conductedat the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company, located in thesuburbs of Chicago. The costs associated with these activities may well offsetthe benefits gained from the activities. Such involvement withjob design and performances eliminates some of the day-to-day managementactivity of the transformational leader, and enables the leader to pursueavenues that can bring change to the organization that have long-termbenefits. In today's modern organizations, transformational leadership offersmanagers the greatest ability to deal with the rapidly changing workplace.Complex organizational and environmental factors require the flexibilitythat this leadership style offers since it enables managers to includeworkers on decisions, and can empower workers to have an increasing levelof control over their work and how it is performed. Klein, K. Theresult is a continuing cycle in which transformational leaders aresupported by a transformational organization, and transformational leaders,in turn, cause increases in the level of transformation of theorganization. Leaders guide organizations in new directions while managers set forth thepolicies that solidify those changes. New York:Harper & Row. 367). 385). References Jenks, V. Adherents of this approach searched for the "onebest way" to perform a specific task, and introduced standard parts andprocedures. As the newChief Executive Officer (CEO) of your company, characterize theorganizational tools that you have available to you to attune yourorganization, i.e., contingency approach, content and process theories,participative management leading to building effective groups, etc. Transactional techniques, such as increased payfor the new standards, may be used as part of the transformational leader'sstrategy, but it is the inclusion of the workers in the decision-makingprocess that sets the transformational leader apart from the transactionalone (Keller, 1992, p. 492). (199 ). This approach was developed byFrederick Taylor and called for the careful analysis of tasks and time-and-motion studies in conjunction with piece-rate pay schemes in order toimprove productivity. A transactional manager reacts to changes inproduction quotas, for example, by requiring that employees either increasetheir hourly output, or work overtime to meet the new standards. Human Relations in Organizations. Today's managers have a more complex role than managers had inprevious eras. These leaders have a concern for and abelief in their individuals (Matey, 1991, p. Transactional managers respond to change, where transformationalmanagers bring about change. Significance of transactional andtransformational leadership theory on the hospital manager. The passive style is described as management by exception whereemployees do not receive notice for their positive contributions to theorganization, but instead are paid attention by their manager only when anerror or problem arises. Members of the organization are not only convinced of thevalidity of the leader's vision, but are motivated to take the stepsnecessary to help achieve that vision. 195-229. They must balance a highly regulated work environment withthe needs of a diverse group of workers, many of who have conflictingpersonal and career goals. Time and motion studies are not entirelyappropriate in this environment, but effective time management is acritical skill that successful professionals develop. Organizations cannot long survive withoutboth leaders and managers: organizations without leaders lack the visionfor long-term success; organizations lacking managers do not have theinfrastructure necessary for the discipline to achieve the leader's vision. In short, they take "ownership" oftheir participation within the organization (Jenks, 199 , p. Traditionally, successfulorganizations have a combination of leaders and managers at each level.Leaders provide the vision and the overall mission that the organizationstrives to achieve, while managers administrate the day-to-day activitiesthat help achieve the vision. The third typeof transformational leader uses consideration for the individual, which isconsidered the final behavioral pattern of the transformational leader.Leaders who exhibit this trait understand their individual subordinatesthrough one-to-one interaction. Scientific management has been criticized on a number of differentissues. It is up to managers at every level of the organization tounderstand how each employee can be coached and helped when the directsupervision is difficult. M. There are twotypes of behavioral patterns used in transactional leadership: passive andactive. Punishment or disciplinary action is often themedium used in this approach. The human relations approach gained popularity at the same time thatscientific management was also in wide use. Through these transformations, organizations growand mature into organizations that support transformational leaders. 6 -6 6. It is difficult, if not impossible,to determine whether leaders or managers are more important to anorganization's development; instead, both are necessary components to asuccessful organization. Under charisma/inspirational approaches, the leader demonstrates ahigh degree of popularity or celebrity status and is held in high esteem bypeers, subordinates, and superiors. The Hawthorne studies also noted that a social order existed withinwork units that was based on clique membership rather than on job function. With this approach, employees are praised for theirperformance and may be eligible for pay increases or other incentives. Organizational DevelopmentAs we view the contemporary organization, we do so through the eyes of aparticipant. (1994, April). Matey, D. Transactional leadership suggests that leaders respond to lower levelsubordinate basic and security needs (Jenks, 199 , p. Another problem that arises withscientific management is that there may be strong work resistance toattempts by management to measure effort and productivity.
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