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ADULT EDUCATION.
Term Paper ID:28088
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Essay Subject:
Examines diverse views of what it should accomplish, learning, methods & techniques.... More...
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8 Pages / 1800 Words
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Paper Abstract:
Examines diverse views of what it should accomplish, learning, methods & techniques.
Paper Introduction:
Introduction
The field of adult education is rife with differing theories of what it is, what it should accomplish, how it should be presented and what should be ignored (Apps, 1988; Bolman & Deal, 1997; Brookfield, 1986; Carnevale & Schulz, 1990; Conway & Ross, 1984; Dixon, 1987; Knowles, 1980; Merriam, 1993; Merriam & Caffarella, 1999).
Due to the large increase in the number of scholars in the field of andragogy, and to the marked increase in the diversity, complexity, and specificity of the work done by sociologists, psychologists, anthropologists, we are now in an era where it is impossible for the major general sociological journals to focus heavily on the topics of primary interest to any particular group of sociologists.
This means that articl
Text of the Paper:
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First, the world ofadult learning (even though Knowles likes to substitute the less-familiarand more difficult word "andragogy") is capsulated in those four elements.First, it is conceivable that at least fourteen theories of how adultslearn come from these four tenets (even though they were first suggested byDescartes, whom Knowles seems to forget). 4. Due to the large increase in the number of scholars in the field ofandragogy, and to the marked increase in the diversity, complexity, andspecificity of the work done by sociologists, psychologists,anthropologists, we are now in an era where it is impossible for the majorgeneral sociological journals to focus heavily on the topics of primaryinterest to any particular group of sociologists. (1993). At best, the evaluation of training hasbeen a perfunctory task with little analysis and usefulness. Knowles is not alone in obfuscation. Journal of European IndustrialTraining, 14(9), 3-7. Determine what information is desired. It is inescapable. 3. Devise a written "comment sheet" that includes those items 3. Of course, Knowles is writing,not for the benefit of the general public (or an interested public) but forthe legion of academicians who are likewise theorizing about how to teachadults, so Knowles, and others of that ilk, becomes a Pope addressing anaudience of Bishops. To address that issue and determine whattraining-evaluation tools were being used by industry, Fisher and Weinberg(1988) of Bell Communications Research, Incorporated conducted a phonesurvey in March of 1986. Yetevaluating the effectiveness of costly training efforts is paramount to thesuccess of any program. However, in the rush to trainand educate people, many organizations have failed to treat the evaluationof such training as a priority. Knowles (198 ) talking about andragogy (teaching of adults instead ofchildren) summarizes the general framework on which almost all theories ofadult learning are based. Indeed, change is necessary to survive in an uncertain world.Also, today's business environment (the realm of the "typical" adult) ishighly competitive. Dixon, N.M. This means that articles published in such journals as the AmericanJournal of Sociology, the American Sociological Review, Adult EducationQuarterly, and Social Forces will, of necessity, be very diverse regardingopinions and views of adult education. It is important to remember that effective evaluation is multifaceted. Antheil and Casper (1986) suggest that participant reaction is ameasure of "customer satisfaction" indicating the level of effectivenessand usefulness of the training program at the time the participants areexperiencing it and sometimes weeks or even months afterward. Endres, G.J., & Kleiner, B.H. One of the best ways to evaluate thistraining is to rely on the benchmark model of evaluation created DonaldKirkpatrick (1979) that used four progressive levels:* Reaction;* Learning;* Behavior;* Results. Kirkpatrick cautions the trainers not to errby creating a non-tabulated response. 2. (1987).Meet training's goals without reaction forms.Personnel Journal, 66(8),1 8-115. Training, in other words, must be a valid part of the hotel'sbusiness, and it must be evaluated. (1986). Adult Development and Learning In Learning in Adulthood, (1999) Merriam and Caffarella talk of ego-syntheses, where each individual integrates her or his experience into agroup identity, in accordance with her or his space, time, and life-plan."To some extent, the learning that goes on in adulthood can be understoodthrough an examination of the social context in which it occurs" (Merriam &Caffarella, 6). Individuals are increasingly adopting different elements intotheir ego-syntheses, providing increased individuation within our society,consciously separating themselves from others and certain rituals of massculture. Brookfield, S.D. Adult Development and Learning 2. Because of the sweeping effects of change andcompetition, a great deal of interest has been placed on higher educationand lifelong learning. Hardly a day goes by withoutnews of the new world economy or the shift from a production to a serviceorientation. Although these options have beendefined and analyzed differently, they include five general types: 1. Carnevale, A.P., & Schulz, E.R. (1997). Introduction The field of adult education is rife with differing theories of whatit is, what it should accomplish, how it should be presented and whatshould be ignored (Apps, 1988; Bolman & Deal, 1997; Brookfield, 1986;Carnevale & Schulz, 199 ; Conway & Ross, 1984; Dixon, 1987; Knowles, 198 ;Merriam, 1993; Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). Personnel Journal, 67(l), 73-77. According to McClusky (197 , p. These assumptions are that as individuals mature: 1) their self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward being a self-directed human being; 2) they accumulate a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasingly rich resource for learning; 3) their readiness to learn becomes increasingly oriented to the developmental tasks of their social roles; and 4) their time perspective changes from one of postponed application, and accordingly, their orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject- centeredness to one of performance-centeredness (Knowles, 198 , 44). If the board or other stockholders do not perceive areturn on their investment, whether measured in terms of time or dollars,they may not be willing to continue to invest in training. (1988). 5. Academic content mastery (i.e., teaching general education contentin special education settings). Fisher, H.E., & Weinberg, R. This "happy sheet" (p.73), as Fisher and Weinbergrefer to it, provided subjective impressions and no data that couldwithstand statistical analysis or measures for reliability. (1988). Learning in adulthood. Consequently, business is turning to training in order to cut costsand increase productivity among employees. Change is everywhere. Conway, M., & Ross, M. Getting what you want by revising whatyou had. Theworst phrase in that awkwardly-constructed sentence (one of many in thatbook) is "their time perspective changes from one of postponed application,and accordingly, their orientation toward learning shifts from one ofsubject-centeredness to one of performance-centeredness" can be translatedinto basic English as "The adult learner needs to know what to do rightnow." That "need to know" is hindered when the person who has the task ofpotentially teaching adult learners is seeking information and is facedwith wading through concepts such as this. How to measure managementtraining and development effectiveness. abilities, possessions, positions, allies, etc. Such diversity is also an intrinsic characteristic ofa discipline that, among other things, attempts to integrate knowledge fromdiverse fields. Margin was conceived as a formula expressing a ratio or relationship between "load" (of living) and "power" (to carry the load). (199 ). Those three are: 1. Furthermore, some trainers gather data for evaluation but do notanalyze those data for trends or use them to improve existing trainingprograms. Without a point of comparison, the measurement of learning at the endof the training program will not reveal exactly how much knowledge has beenobtained from the training experience. Attitude skills (preparing adult students for the demands ofchanging adulthood by providing vocational training and/or life skillsinstruction. (1979). Merriam, S. 27) load is the 'self and social demands required by a person to maintain a minimal level of autonomy...[Power is] the resources, i.e. Methods and Techniques for Teaching Adults Although for many years corporate trainers have attempted to evaluatetheir programs, until quite recently, there has not been a bona fide effortto use valid and reliable methods to conduct such evaluations. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass. Theories and Research for Adult Learning 3. Amidst all of this type of writing, it was refreshing to run acrossKirkpatrick whose suggestions will conclude this paper. He suggests that trainers: 1. Reframing Organizations: Artistry,choice and leadership: San Francisco CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. It is important to note that diversity is a characteristic both ofjournals in low-consensus fields and of general journals that cover a widerange of specialties. To summarize, andragogy is premised on at least these four crucial assumptions about the characteristics of learners that are different from the assumptions on which traditional pedagogy is premised. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass. Make the sheets anonymous. Apps, J.W. (1984). Obviously, evaluation of learning is much more difficult to measurethan reaction. 2. The modern practice of adult education: Frompedagogy to andragogy. Techniques for evaluating training programs.Training and Development Journal, 33(6), 78-92. (198 ). 5. Kirkpatrick, D.L. OJT, or job specific training. Methods and Techniques for Teaching Adults To give the paper even more precise focus, the subject of adulteducation will be delimited to that sub-area of corporate and industrialtraining programs and theories. Making training accountable:Assess its impact. Endres and Kleiner (199 ) state that pretests and posttestsare necessary when evaluating the amount of learning that has taken place. 73). Such an oversight can be costly, especially in light of thebillions of dollars that have been spent and will continue to be spentannually on corporate training efforts. Second, the simple is made complex, which seems to be the goal ofalmost every theorist we have been reading concerning adult learning. This suggests that, in the American culture of the 21st century, theimage of an adult is expanding to one of increasing individuation due tothe expansiveness of civilization with its stratification andspecialization. An update on adult learning theory. Kirkpatrick uses "reaction" to refer to the participants' response toa particular training program. Training & Development Journal, pp. Knowles, M.S. In order to give this paper some focus, the three inquiryunits presented in this seminar will be maintained and each shall serve asa topic heading. For instance, Merriam (1993), in her compendium of varyingeducational theories implies by her editorial selection of authors that avital part of human development is learning to be able to relate to, anddeal with, change. Chicago: Follett. Design the sheet so that reactions can be easily tabulated andmanipulated by statistical means. Nearly every writer included byMerriam in her 1993 effort is theoretically aligned rather than practicallyaligned. 51-531. The "typical" adult (chronologically defined) now has exposure to somany different identities that it is impossible to include them all in ego-synthesis. This is quoted so extensively for two reasons. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47(4), 738-748. The evaluation, at this stage, simplymeasures subjective responses like how well a class was presented, or howvaluable the information was. References Antheil, J.H., & Casper, I.G. In this formula, he placed designations of Power (P) in the denominator (M=L/P) (Merriam, 1993, 42). Higher education in a learning society. The data indicated that the typical instrument to gather informationregarding reactions was a "short, quickly constructed, open-endedquestionnaire" (p. Understanding and facilitating adultlearning. (199 , July Supplement). General education classroom support (i.e., assisting students whoseek general education classes through tutorial instruction, distancelearning, learning strategies instruction, and/or collaborative teaching 4. Comprehensive evaluation model:A tool for the evaluation of non traditional educational programs.Innovative HigherEducation, 11 (1), 55-64. Merriam, S.; Caffarella, R. Most of the training literature recognizes the importance of evaluation interms of client orientation and economic return. Remedial (i.e., teaching basic skills and/or social skills thathave not been mastered). For instance, Hiemstra's analysis of models contains thissentence. Most researchers in thefield understand that clients, whether they are those who have hired thetrainer or those who have participated in the training, must be satisfiedwith that training. Bolman, L.G., & Deal, T.E. Return oninvestment: Accounting for training. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass. Theories and Research for Adult Learning A number of curricular options have typically been identified as abasis for training for adult students. However, they are careful to stress that data collected regardingparticipant reactions reflect participant opinions and should not beconsidered proof of learning. Encourage the participants to make additional comments not elicitedby questions on the sheet (Kirkpatrick, 1979). According to Kirkpatrick's guidelines, a knowledge ofstatistical procedures is essential for accurate and meaningfulmeasurement. which a person can command in coping with the load. (1986). (1999).
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