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APPROPRIATE CURRICULUM FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION.
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Essay Subject:
Examines variety of approaches based on developmental stages of child. How to build a creative, comprehensive curriculum.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines variety of approaches based on developmental stages of child. How to build a creative, comprehensive curriculum.
Paper Introduction:
This paper is a discussion of the diverse curriculum appropriate for teaching children during the early childhood years, using Hilda L. Jackman's text, Early Education Curriculum: A Child's Connection to the World, as a guide. Jackman's book is grounded in three basic philosophies: that curriculum be centered around and directed to the child at his or her level of development, that the focus of the classroom should be on process, and that the environment should encourage creativity. She explores a wide range of curricular areas, suggesting specific concepts and activities that are useful in each, for different developmental levels. This paper examines the kinds of approaches she advocates and looks at a variety of related issues that her suggestions raise.
During the earliest years of life, the brain itself is
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[25] Jackman, 7. and Carolyn Eckerty. [22] Ibid., 215. Carol E. [9] Ibid., 27. "Identify, Preteach, Connect." Instructor 1 8:8 (May-June 1999): 6.Rogovin, Paula. Nevertheless, some special skills and areas withinliteracy as a discrete subject require their own concentration. [24] Karen Meador, "Meeting the Needs of Young Gifted Students."Childhood Education 73:1 (Fall 1996): 7. JoAn Vaughan observes, "Allchildren are expected to proceed at the same pace. "Brain Research and Implications for Early Childhood Education." Childhood Education 75:2 (Winter 1998): 97-1 .Makin, Laurie, Jacqueline Hayden, and Chriss Jones Diaz. Jackman's way of looking at the challenge of earlyeducation programs and the need to develop a coherent curriculum is thelogical product of the cultural climate and educational philosophy ofcontemporary America. . . She contends, "It would be neither ethical nor practical tointerview children directly . . The earlychildhood setting is one of the best places to recognize early signs oflearning disabilities and to begin to teach those with physical handicapshow to adapt to the world around them. She emphasizes the importanceof being creative - both as a student and as a teacher, helping young mindsto develop to the fullest extent possible. Other factors are also still in the developmental stages. . Researchers are discovering just howdynamic this period really is. [many of] their 'notes' were mostly pictures" (16). Jeanette A. In this case, the systemseeks to define and enhance the subtle differences that exist; Americaneducators studying the system have considered whether it could be"translated into a community that, like so many in the U.S., is culturally,economically and linguistically diverse?"[3 ] Reggio Emilia also demands amuch more intensive involvement from not only parents but community membersin general than may be practical in an American setting. She writes, "Because my students are quiteyoung, periodically I stopped the interview so they could catch up withtheir note taking . [4] Hilda L. Thus the younger the children, the greater the burden on their teachers to interpret the meaning of their behavior. . . Yet teachers must also remain sensitive to the individual'sdifferences; education should become a process of adding to the child'sunderstanding of and reaction to the world, not a means of taking awayfundamental elements of the child's heritage. Marxen, forexample, argues that very young children can learn a great deal about asophisticated topics such as physics, the science that explores matter,energy, and the interactions between the two; while an advancedunderstanding is beyond them, "they can begin to make discoveries aboutmatter and energy . Jackman, Early Education Curriculum: A Child'sConnection to the World (Albany, NY: Delmar, 1997), 17. "Preschool Children's Classification Skills and a Multicultural Education Intervention to Promote Acceptance of Ethnic Diversity." Childhood Education 76:6 (September 15, 2 ): 396-4 9.Hartman, Jeanette A. Gail Lindsey writes, "During these firstfew years, brain development is more rapid and extensive than previouslyrealized."[1] Events occurring in the surrounding environment influencenot only the number of brain cells that are produced during this time andthe connections between those cells but also how those connections are"wired." The earliest years are hugely influential in determining thebrain that later gets taken into the formal classroom. . [18] Jackman, 53. One of the most prominent subject areas of the early educationcurriculum is literacy, learning to read and write. Jackman's book represents the latest thinking in early childhoodeducation in the United States. involves making a series ofchoices based on the developmental stages, learning styles, and interestsof the children; the goals and objectives of the program; and theavailability of materials, supplies, and resources."[1 ] She suggestsusing themes, units, projects, and webs as the main elements in selectingthe activities used to achieve the curricular goals. children pass through stages of development,and . Jackman writes, "The process of curriculum development is one ofcontinuous planning, implementation, assessing, and evaluating."[14]Assessment and evaluation are critical parts of the process, since theyhelp determine whether or not the curriculum and its implementation doingwhat they are designed to do. Literacy development is imbedded in allcurricular areas. Curiously, her divisionof these areas includes both subject-matter topics and chapters that focusmore on techniques; puppets, for instance, are an extremely useful tool forearly childhood education but are not a distinct subject in the way thatliteracy skills and science stand as discrete areas of study. . The Chinese system is influenced by the national policy that limitsfamilies to only having one child, "raising concerns about the possibleharmful effects of too much attention and pampering . [16] Ibid., 2 7. Paula Rogovindescribes her use of interviews to bridge different subjects and sparkrelated activities. She writes, "The lesson plan . She explores a widerange of curricular areas, suggesting specific concepts and activities thatare useful in each, for different developmental levels. "Early Learning That Works." Good Housekeeping, August 1999, 7 -72.Vaughan, JoAn. [8] Ibid., 21. Literacy is both aseparate subject for study and a part of all other subjects. . Ongoing research continues to support and refine thevarying (but relatively complimentary) theories of physical, cognitive, andpsychosocial development of Erikson, Piaget, and others that support theage-appropriate approach. [19] Laurie Makin, Jacqueline Hayden, and Chriss Jones Diaz, "High-Quality Literacy Programs in Early Childhood Classrooms." ChildhoodEducation 76:6 (September 15, 2 ): 368. [2] Lilian G. Young children must be participants in theprocess, not passive receptors; Paula Span observes, "One of the mostimportant forms of early learning stems from what researchers call'response-contingent experience' - the baby performs an action, andsomething happens in response."[3] As Hilda L. [17] Jo Ann Brewer and Judith Kieff, "Fostering Mutual Respect forPlay at Home and School." Childhood Education 73:2 (Winter 1996): 92. It is also a prime setting forbeginning to meet the needs of gifted children. Jackman writes, "Growth isa sequential process, . Theseinclude the development of letter recognition and learning to write thoseletters and then form them into coherent words and sentences. [3] Paula Span, "Early Learning That Works." Good Housekeeping,August 1999, 7 -71. "Push, Pull, Toss, Tilt, Swing: Physics for Young Children." Childhood Education 71:4 (Summer 1995): 212-219.Meador, Karen. While she isseeking to provide ideas which can be useful in the classroom, she is alsotrying to suggest the almost infinite range of possible methods by whichchildren can learn and, by extension, the diverse range of subjects thatcan be included in the early childhood curriculum. Research also continues to support the notionthat individuals develop at their own pace within this general frameworkand benefit from attention to this individuality. In the last three decades, however, the use of projects and discovery learning has given way to the influence of behaviorism and scope-and-sequence curricula. Two different approaches that provide an interesting contrast to Jackman'sAmerican preschool are systems in China and the Reggio Emilia approach inuse in Italy. . . [6] Ibid., 2 . Kathleen Glascott Burris observes that the earlychildhood setting is a critical time in the establishment of a generaltolerance for others. [26] Kathleen Glascott Burris, "Preschool Children's ClassificationSkills and a Multicultural Education Intervention to Promote Acceptance ofEthnic Diversity." Childhood Education 76:6 (September 15, 2 ): 396. "Projects in the Early Years." Childhood Education 71:3 (Spring 1995): 141-149.Jackman, Hilda L. Early Education Curriculum: A Child's Connection to the World. . Acomprehensive lesson plan should seek to address all three areas over anextended period, using as many different but age-appropriate techniques aspossible. Rogovin encourages her students to be the ones to take"notes" during the interview. It would be ethically unacceptable to putchildren in situations that might encourage them to criticize theircaretakers and teachers."[16] Jackman presents in-depth examinations of ten curricular areas usefulin teaching all early education groups: language and literacy, literature,puppets, dramatic play and creative dramatics, art, sensory centers, musicand movement, math, science, and social studies. She writes, "The development of cognitive processesinfluences young children's attitudes generally, rather than specifically .. BibliographyAbramson, Shareen, Roxanne Robinson, and Katie Ankenman. She writes, "The interview is a powerful tool forinquiry-based, multicultural learning that goes far beyond the range of anytextbook."[13] These basic elements form the essence of the lesson plan, a detailedoutline for the way that time will be spent in the early educationclassroom. That such process might alsohelp teachers' to develop as well is simply an added bonus. [23] Jackman, 178. Hartman and Eckerty note, "Rather than focusing onbits of information, projects require children to connect relatedinformation that is learned over time (at least 2 weeks)."[12] Webs are cross-curricular approaches that use a variety of activitiesto draw connections among various themes and projects. Jackman also encourages teachers to remain aware of cultural andethnics differences. . It is important toremember that curriculum encompasses the planned and the unplanned."[8] Jackman also places considerable emphasis on where learning takesplace. [engaging] staff, parents, children and the community inthe continuing development and management of programs. Even the mostbasic communication skills are necessary for learning other things.Jackman writes, "Literacy is a continuous process, [and] children areworking on all aspects of oral and written language at the same time."[18]Literacy is also a more complex skill than is sometimes acknowledged, asLaurie Makin and her colleagues point out: "The multiple literacypractices of homes, communities, and early childhood settings - forexample, the literacies of technology and popular culture, everydayfunctional uses of print, and languages other than standard . The child isresponsible for keeping up, and poor performance is usually attributed to'not working hard enough.'"[28] Nevertheless, the Chinese have a highregard for their children, and, for them, their system is effective. The entire package- the basic approach, the material being taught, and the ultimateobjectives of the teaching process as a whole - makes up the curriculum.Jackman quotes the definition of curriculum devised by the NationalAssociation for the Education of Young Children and the NationalAssociation of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments ofEducation as "an organized framework that delineates the content childrenare to learn, the process through which children achieve the identifiedcurricular goals, what teachers do to help children achieve these goals,and the context in which teaching and learning occur."[6] She herselfgives an even more succinct definition: "Curriculum is a multileveledprocess that encompasses what happens in an early education classroom eachday, reflecting the philosophy, goals, and objectives of the earlychildhood program."[7] Curriculum, then, is not only what is taught but how and to whom and,maybe, even more important, why. This paperexamines the kinds of approaches she advocates and looks at a variety ofrelated issues that her suggestions raise. Marxen, "Push, Pull, Toss, Tilt, Swing: Physics forYoung Children." Childhood Education 71:4 (Summer 1995): 213. Nevertheless, examining different approaches than the one Jackmanespouses can help to clarify those aspects of her basic approach that aremost useful and solid. . [2 ] Laura Robb, "Identify, Preteach, Connect." Instructor 1 8:8 (May-June 1999): 6. Each level of development must include a variety of activitiesto help build the child's physical, cognitive, and psychosocial skills. The individual child arrives in the classroom alreadyinfluenced by the family's "values or beliefs, language, patterns ofthinking, appearance, and behavior."[5] Socialization is part of the earlyeducation process - that is, acculturation into the mainstream ways ofbehaving. The Reggio Emilia approach is also the specific product of theItalian culture in which it was developed. Hartman and Carolyn Eckerty provide historicalbackground on the use of this technique: Project work's roots are in the Progressive Education era, near the turn of the century. Teachers and administrators must continuallyobserve and document the work being done and then find ways of determiningwhat is working and what is not. . [27] JoAn Vaughan, "Early Childhood Education in China." ChildhoodEducation 69:4 (Summer 1993): 196. Creativity itself is directly encouraged in four of the tenareas: puppets, dramatic play and creative dramatics, art, and music andmovement. In one way, however, this strange classification system serves as areminder that play is a vital component in the learning process and isdifferent from the undirected (and also necessary) play that childrenengage in outside the classroom. "Fostering Mutual Respect for Play at Home and School." Childhood Education 73:2 (Winter 1996): 92-98.Burris, Kathleen Glascott. However, the teacher can help students take the next step:"In order to give children an opportunity to expand their understanding andmake emaningful connections, physics activities should be part of a largerproject or topic, which can be initiated by eaither the teacher or thechildren and should be carried out collaboratively."[22] Jackmanemphasizes the importance of the sciences within the early childhoodcurriculum, since science encourages children to explore their world and todiscover the physical properties that govern how things work. . [5] Ibid., 23. "Perspectives on the Quality of Early Childhood Programs." Phi Delta Kappan 76:3 (November 1994): 2 -2 8.Lindsey, Gail. [7] Ibid. [28] Ibid., 199. [3 ] Ibid., 197.----------------------- 19 This paper is a discussion of the diverse curriculum appropriate forteaching children during the early childhood years, using Hilda L.Jackman's text, Early Education Curriculum: A Child's Connection to theWorld, as a guide. Katz, "Perspectives on the Quality of Early ChildhoodPrograms." Phi Delta Kappan 76:3 (November 1994): 2 . Early childhood education begins with an understanding of the specialnature of the individuals being taught. Katz offersmore extensive ways of looking at the issue, noting, "the reliableexamination of the quality of programs designed to enhance early childhooddevelopment and learning requires a broader set of perspectives than arecurrently employed."[15] She argues that, especially with youngerchildren, evaluation should include a variety of perspectives, includingthose of parents and children, even if the children's perceptions must beinferred. Similarly, the younger the children, the less able they are to articulate their ideas, needs, and feelings, and the greater the burden on teachers to make accurate inferences about what the children are thinking and feeling.[2]In the years before they are ready for formal learning, early childhoodeducation fills a crucial gap, and this need cannot be met by simplyscaling down some version of the elementary school curriculum for smallerhands and younger minds. . Throughout the book, Jackman looks for ways to build creativitywithin children, as well as within teachers, who must constantly try tofind interesting, challenging, or unusual ways of presenting thecurriculum. [15] Katz, 2 1. However, it is important to note that this system,like the Chinese approach, was developed in a homogenous society, one thatassumes a certain commonality among its children. English -often are undervalued."[19] Because literacy development is so integral to all learning, it isusually possible to use techniques that build literacy skills whileteaching other subjects. By beginning the planning process with aclear understanding of all these issues, the early education teacher canalso deal with those aspects of teaching that cannot be planned. Hartman and Carolyn Eckerty, "Projects in the EarlyYears." Childhood Education 71:3 (Spring 1995): 141. From this jumping-off point,teachers can introduce a wide range of subject matter. . Therefore, early childhood education must take into accountthe peculiar nature of early development and the progress of the individualchild through these stages of development. While Jackman does not address the issue explicitly, her contentionthat all early childhood education experience must take into account thedevelopment level of the individual child also suggests the necessity foradapting to and understanding children with special needs. Lilian G.Katz observes: The younger the children, the less they are socialized into institutional and group norms, and the more their behavior is determined by experience accrued in nonschool contexts. Jo Ann Brewer and Judith Kieff point out,"Play that parents promote at home and play that teachers promote in schooloften serve different purposes and fulfill different learning goals.Together, play at home and play at school provide young children aninvaluable continuum for learning and development."[17] Playing allowschildren to master a variety of skills, including physical proficiency,social skills (when playing with others), cognitive abilities, and the joyof discovery. Jackman also advocates the establishment of sensory centers, physicalplaces that allow children to explore using all five senses. [11] Jeanette A. Shareen Abramson and hercolleagues write, "Parents founded the Reggio Emilia schools at the end ofWorld War II . Especially during the first three years, the child is not merelyfinding out how to use this critical organ to think and process thesurrounding world, the organ itself is still coalescing, literally takingshape within the child's head. In vocabulary work,this means identifying the words students will need to understand beforereading or having reading to them a particular passage, then preteachingthree to five (no more) of those words before the passage is read.Finally, the teacher connects the new words to concepts the student alreadyunderstands, using, if possible, the context in which the new words arefound as part of the connection.[2 ] These three steps are keys tocommunicating many types of basic information, not just new vocabularywords. [29] Shareen Abramson, Roxanne Robinson, and Katie Ankenman, "ProjectWork with Diverse Students: Adapting Curriculum Based on the Reggio EmiliaApproach." Childhood Education 71:4 (Summer1995): 198. Themes are overallconcepts or topics, and units are divisions within the theme that addressspecific components. Over the past decade, interest in projects has resurged as educators rediscover children's receptiveness to the ideas espoused by the early proponents.[11]Projects allow children to explore a particular topic in depth, followingtheir own interests. . . "Early Childhood Education in China." Childhood Education 69:4 (Summer 1993): 196-2 1.----------------------- [1] Gail Lindsey, "Brain Research and Implications for Early ChildhoodEducation." Childhood Education 75:2 (Winter 1998): 97. . Using these understandings as the basic premise for teaching youngchildren, Jackman offers a wide range of useful, practical suggestions forbuilding a comprehensive curriculum. Laura Robb, laying out the basic steps for expanding vocabularyrecognition skills, spells out a useful three-step process for teaching avariety of concepts: identify, preteach, and connect. Learning during this periodinvolves the whole child. [21] Carol E. [producingchildren who] were more egocentric, less persistent and less cooperativethan children with siblings."[27] The culture also emphasizes socialconformity; therefore, while early education in China takes developmentallevels into account in presenting curriculum (reserving the etaching ofmore formal academic subjects until age 5, for instance), it has little usefor the other two basics of Jackman's philosophy, individualappropriateness and creative development. Gifted children, just as all childrenwith special needs, require the teacher to pay particular attention toJackman's admonition to provide "each child with the time, opportunities,and resources to achieve individual goals."[25] Children with specialneeds, whatever they may be, are a reminder that the curriculum must beadaptable to the individual, rather than trying to make every individualadapt to the curriculum. [12] Ibid., 142. children learn through their play and by actively participatingin the learning experiences offered."[4] Individuality is also inherent in the child's cultural heritage andethnicity. Jackmanobserves, "Spontaneous, teachable moments occur daily. The setting, she argues, should be age-appropriate and laid out ina way that reflects the underlying philosophy of the teaching process:"This is an extension of classroom management and part of a teacher'sstrategy to accomplish the learning goals and objectives."[9] Both theindoor and outdoor spaces should be laid out in ways that encourageexploration while protecting the child from the hazards of over-enthusiastic exploration. However, her text is not primarily concerned withthis step in the process, and her suggestions are cursory. Albany, NY: Delmar, 1997.Katz, Lilian G. Her techniques and underlying philosophyare in keeping with the prevailing attitudes toward education children inthe preschool years and perparing them for the formal classroom experience. These should serve as both exact examples to follow andinspirations for other ways of approaching the material. It is much like Dewey's (1916) reconstructions and Kilpatrick's (1918) project method . We need to organize classroomsto accommodate needs that vary from the anticipated developmentalrange."[24] She notes that giftedness may include an ability to learn muchmore quickly than other students, advanced ability in a specific domain, orextreme creativity. [13] Paula Rogovin, "Everyone Has Stories to Tell." Instructor 1 8:7(April 1999): 15. Throughout the text, Jackman lays out specific activities,suggestions, guidance, and techniques for teaching each of the curricularareas. She also cautions that gifted children may exhibitcharacteristics that, because they are outside the developmental norm,disrupt classroom activities or challenge the teacher's ability to includethe child in the planned curriculum. [14] Jackman, 42. During the earliest years of life, the brain itself is still beingformed. Jackman's book is grounded in three basic philosophies: that curriculum be centered around and directed to the child at his or herlevel of development, that the focus of the classroom should be on process,and that the environment should encourage creativity. Finally, researchsupports the concept that creativity can be stimulated and that suchstimulation is beneficial to all aspects of the development of theindividual child. Projects are an approach that was first developed in the early 2 thcentury. Reciprocity andinteraction characterize relationships among these participants."[29] Themost fundamental principle of this approach is the view of the child as anindividual, with very little discussion about developmental levels ofchildren as a group. "Meeting the Needs of Young Gifted Students." Childhood Education 73:1 (Fall 1996): 6-12.Robb, Laura. Stereotyping at a young age may be viewed as an inherent cognitiveclassification mechanism."[26] Early childhood teachers should be aware ofthis increased susceptibility and look for ways to expand young minds inevery respect, including in their ability to accept perspectives andpractices that differ from those they know. The plan is a continuously-revised document, a guide for theachievement of overall objectives and therefore capable of being adjustedand altered as it is put into use and its effectiveness is analyzed. She argues,"Sensory experience is at the core of the curriculum for very youngchildren."[23] While sensory experiences and opportunities for explorationare also essential elements in the teaching of other specific subjects, thechance to see, smell, touch, taste, and hear their world is also anessential need in and of itself. Jackman emphasizes the need to consider all these elements beforebeginning the work of laying out lesson plans, the written part of thecurriculum. By including subject headings that gobeyond the basics of literacy, math, and science, she encourages herreaders to consider as many different areas as possible that can be taughtsuccessfully or included in considerations. Brewer and Kieff caution that parents may not immediatelyrecognize the value of play as part of the classroom experience;understanding its part within the overall curriculum will not only allowteachers to respond to parents' concerns, it will also enable them to makethe best possible use of play as one of many methods of implementing thecurriculum. "Project Work with Diverse Students: Adapting Curriculum Based on the Reggio Emilia Approach." Childhood Education 71:4 (Summer 1995): 197-2 6.Brewer, JoAnn and Judith Kieff. They require the teacher to understand what students already know,what information needs to be added to their store of knowledge, and how newmaterial can be connected to and built on their basic foundation ofknowledge. "Everyone Has Stories to Tell." Instructor 1 8:7 (April 1999): 15-16.Span, Paula. . activities [which] stimualte children's inquiry andproblem-solving skills."[21] Mraxen notes that simply being able to carry out activities thatqualify as examples of physics in action does not guarantee any higherunderstanding. Theorists and researchers have studied the development ofchildren with regard to creativity; children become progressively more ableto deal with abstract concepts and symbolism, for instance, and activitiesthat encourage them to draw on these developing abilities as they areacquired help build children's skills at finding more inventive solutionsand creative responses to the world in general. "High-Quality Literacy Programs in Early Childhood Classrooms." Childhood Education 76:6 (September 15, 2 ): 368-376.Marxen, Carol E. Jackman details five methods of assessing and evaluating aneducational program. Karen Meador writes, "Children are unique and bring assortedexperience and needs to the classroom . [1 ] Ibid., 34. . Although all human beings progress through a series of developmentalsteps, learning, as it were, to crawl before they walk, this progress isindividual.
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