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THEORIES OF CRIMINOLOGY.
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Essay Subject:
Five theoretical explanations of criminal behavior.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Five theoretical explanations of criminal behavior. Classical or "choice" theory, strain theory, cultural deviance, social processing and conflict theories. Applies theories to seven scenarios of different types of criminal acts: Insider trading, call girl, car theft, poverty & gangs, tax-cheating, wife beater, date rape, robbery.
Paper Introduction:
Cases and Theories of Criminality
Introduction
The purpose of this report is to employ five theories of criminology to a series of seven scenarios involving some type of criminal behavior, identifying which of the theories is either most or least applicable to each scenario. The five theoretical explanations of criminality are: classical or “choice” theory, strain theory, cultural deviance theory, social processing theory, and conflict theory. Each case will be addressed in a separate section, below.
Insider Trading
The first scenario involves a case in which a Wall Street broker possessed of an advanced degree from Harvard, who engages in insider trading practices and earns a million dollars over
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Finally, conflict theory from the Marxist criminological perspectivewould argue that the young man is alienated from meaningful involvement insociety and aware that he is a member of a despised and oppressed group forwhom only limited opportunities for success exist (Siegel, 2 ). As an inner city resident, theyoung man is not automatically disposed toward crime, but if peer relationssupport crime and socialization directs the young man toward deviantbehavior, it is likely that he will learn criminal behavior. At the same time, social process theory, particularlydifferential association theory, as proposed by Sutherland (1947), appearsapplicable. Consequently, crimebecomes a viable alternative means of "making it" and acquiring desirablematerial and non-material symbols of achievement and success. Sutherland(1947) effectively argues that criminal behavior is learned, a byproduct ofinteracting with others, occurs within intimate personal groups, and isreinforced because criminal behavior appears more favorable than otherbehaviors. Cases involving poor or inner city youth are amenable toexplanation via strain theory, cultural deviance theory, social processtheory, and conflict theory. He might rationalize that they had, through their own actions,given him sufficient reason to assume that sexual intercourse would beacceptable. Also with respect to social process theory, wife-beating may befacilitated by several techniques of neutralization. However, if the young woman "just said no" in any way or form,rational choice would strongly support not engaging in date rape. (1955). When Merton's (1957) strain theory and anomie are considered, whatemerges is the realization that this young man is determined to achievewealth, success, and power. In sum, criminalbehavior may well be motivated by any number of factors both internal tothe individual and external to the individual and his or her environment.The decision to engage in acts defined by society as criminal may notnecessarily be a voluntary decision, but may rather be a consequence of theinteraction of complex forces poorly understood by the individual. The male may perceive that he has the power to determineand control the behavior of others. Abnormal Psychology and Modern life. Culturaldeviance appears to be the least likely explanation for this crime becausethe profession in which the stockbroker is positioned has strong ethicalnorms governing behavior.The Call Girl College Student The second case to be examined herein is that of a college woman whobecomes a call girl to earn money to help pay for college tuition andbecause it leaves her more time to concentrate on her schoolwork. Introduction to Personality. In the case of wife-beating (andits near relative, child abuse), social process theory appears to be thestrongest explanation for deviance. Sociology. Lower-class subcultures tend to stress excitement, toughness,taking risks, fearlessness, immediate gratification and street smarts(Siegel, 2 ). New York: Holt,Rinehart, and Winston. However, the fact that the young man is probably aware thatpenalties for juvenile offenders tend to be lighter than for adultoffenders may have influenced his choice. Hess, Markson, and Stein (199 ) also claim that a growing bodyof research on family violence suggests that it is a complex response toconditions in the household and the general society: these include povertyand powerlessness, media portrayals of violence against women, ideologicalsupport for male aggression, struggles for self-expression, and themeanings that people give to their actions. Social Psychology. St. Anomie theory, with its five modes of adaptation (conformity,innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion) also does not appear tobe particularly applicable. New York: The Free Press. Classical or choice theory would posit that the man has made arational choice to suffer the consequences or run the risk of thoseconsequences. Evanston,IL: Scott, Foresman. Strain theory, on the other hand, is based in large measure on theconcept of anomie and its capacity to undermine society's social controlfunction (Siegel, 2 ). On the other hand, under choice theory, the malemay believe that there is little likelihood that he will be caught orpenalized for his action. In this same context, Cloward and Ohlin (196 ) have proposed that theopportunities made available to this young man in his community areimportant push and pull factors with respect to both gang membership anddelinquency. Only the belief that this doctor feels himself to be avictim of discrimination would in any way suggest that anomie theory isapplicable. Under the radical feminist model, says Siegel (2 ), paternalisticfamilies may tacitly support wife-beating as a legitimate expression ofwomen's secondary status. The fifth and final theory applicable herein is conflict theory.Within conflict theory, theorists try to explain crime within economic andsocial contexts and to express the connection between social class, crime,and social control (Siegel, 2 ). Thisparticular type of crime can best be characterized as a white-collar crimeand it almost meets the criteria of a "victimless" crime in that governmentand society as a whole rather than any individual or subgroup, tend to bemost negatively affected by the crime. This may be based on the fact that manyvictims of date rape are unlikely to report the crime as well as the factthat many men tend to misinterpret communication with females. Under this theory, personality and lifestyle also affect criminal choices. Conflict theory could explain this situation by arguing that the malewho beats his wife is displacing his anger - anger more legitimatelydirected against society or institutions that the abusive male perceives asfrustrating or inhibiting the realization of his aspirations. From the Marxist perspective, it couldbe argued that this young man recognizes at a certain level that he is amarginal member of an affluent society in which elites have rendered himimpotent and created situations where he is unlikely to achieve his goalsand objectives (i.e., a removal from poverty and an approach to affluence). This particulartheory, under the aegis of Robert Merton's anomie theory, claims thatsocial conditions and not personality can account for crime. Social process theories appear to be more valid in explaining thisset of behaviors than cultural deviance theory. What emerges from this report is the recognition that it is importantto search for causation on a case-by-base basis. (1957). Coleman, J.C. Rational choice theory, for example, can explain this decision as aconsidered choice between the alternative of menial labor for minimum wageand risky criminal behavior capable of generating larger economic returns.First, as a juvenile, the young male is less likely to suffer excessive orharsh punishment were he arrested, tried, and convicted of armed robbery.Secondly, the benefits of armed robbery are larger than the benefits ofminimum wage labor. In point offact, he may have originally developed in a subculture (economic or social)in which physical violence against women and children was tacitly accepted- even by its victims. Her goals - financial security and freedom to study- are logical and legitimate goals though her response to them is notlegitimate. Culturaldeviance theory applies in this instance only to the degree that the womanmay be in a state of rebellion against her parents and their values (Baron& Byrne, 2 ). Thus, criminological theories may be lessappropriate for "explaining" this particular form of deviance thanpsychological theories such as those which center on the development ofuncontrolled violence and aggression or anti-social personality types.The Male College Student and Date Rape This scenario involves a male college student who engages in daterape. References Baron, R. This physician, in cheating onhis taxes, has most probably made a rational choice between conforming tothe strict letter of the tax code and engaging in an action that could be"explained" as nothing more than a "mistake." Certainly, by deliberatelymisrepresenting either his income or his expenditures, the physician haschosen his behavior. Cloward and Ohlin(196 ) developed the relationship between delinquency/criminality andopportunity with respect to sub-cultural groups - a group to which thisparticular individual is not a member. (196 ). Consequently, he may adapt to these limitingconditions by means of innovation, which occurs when he accepts the goalsof society, but knows himself to be incapable of legitimately obtainingthem (Siegel, 2 ). In the present case, both social process theories (includingdifferential association and labeling theory) and cultural deviance theory(in the case of Cloward and Ohlin's theory of delinquency and opportunity)are applicable. Cloward, R. This youngwoman has learned from definitions of the legal code that her criminal actsare victimless and therefore can assure herself that her behavior is notinappropriate or truly criminal. (2 ). Merton (1957) argued that anomie is mostlikely to occur among individuals and groups who are structurally barred bysociety from achieving desirable economic and status aspirations. New York: The Free Press. He may be convinced that his wife will notreport him and that he will not be found guilty of (much less punished for)a crime. Itapplies most closely to individuals with little formal education and feweconomic resources. (199 ). From the perspective of strain theory, Siegel (2 ) suggests thatcompetition for success creates both conflict and crime. These theorists suggest that the young man may be receivingemotional support from the gang that helps him to cope with any negativefallout from criminal activity. Strain may bethe presentation of negative stimuli. J. (1947). Philadelphia: J.E.Lippincott. The successful individuals whom he encounters in his poverty-ridden inner city community do not work at McDonald's. This subculture becomes an alternative to conformitybecause the urban poor find it impossible to meet the behavioral demands ofmiddle-class society. (1989). Regardless of the fact that this man is a collegestudent, if his male peers are also engaged in date rape or similarbehaviors, he may find validation for his activities regardless of anyrecognition that the larger society stigmatizes and criminalizes suchactivities. From the perspective of conflict theory, the power relations insociety might be asserted as influencing this doctor's decision to cheat onhis taxes. Social process theories hold that criminality is a function ofindividual socialization. This view, therefore, does not appear to beapplicable in the present case. They deal drugs,run prostitutes, and commit robberies. There islittle institutional support for his actions. It is probable that this particulardoctor has justified his law-violating behavior by denying that he hasinjured anyone and by saying that "everyone does it." He may have used aneutralization strategy to neutralize conventional norms and values andfind an excuse that allows him to justify cheating on his taxes (Siegel,2 ). Of the various scenarios, each appears to be most amenable to socialprocess theories or to strain theory. A., & Ohlin, L. Thiseffectively explains middle and upper class crime, but also makes it clearthat institutional anomie induces criminal behavior on the part of white-collar workers for whom crime is less related to survival than it is tosuccess. Though middle-class at the present time, this male may nothave always enjoyed this particular level of economic status. Hess, B. Criminology. Strain theory, particularly as reflected in institutional anomietheory, maintains that alienation from the norms and values of one's owngroup or society as a whole, can lead to a rejection of conformity andultimately to rebellion. Delinquent Boys. In the present case, the stockbroker belongs to aprofession that is not only heavily regulated, but also one in whichethical codes of conduct are well-established. Each of the theoriesdiscussed herein has both merits and flaws and no single theory ofcriminality appears to have a universal application. It is doubtful that this young offenderevaluated the risk of apprehension, the seriousness of expected punishment,the potential value of the criminal enterprise, or his immediate need forcriminal gain when deciding first to join a gang, and second, to stealcars. (199 ). In strain theory, anger, frustration, disappointment, depression, andfear are all believed to contribute to anti-social behavior. Cohen, A. Anomie theory is therefore a strong explanation of this scenario. (1971). Racial and ethnic discrimination labels them as deviant andconflict is inherent in societies that do not achieve true equality. At the same time, implicit within cultural deviance theory is therecognition that individuals tend to embrace the standards, norms, andmores of their own social group. The classical theory ofcrime is based on rational choice theory (Hess, Markson, & Stein, 1989;Siegel, 2 ). According to this view,poor inner city youths are driven to commit crimes out of economicdesperation. Thisbeing the case, he may perceive himself as inherently in conflict withsociety. He may, throughhis associations with other males, find validation in the belief that "sheasked for it" or that he has the right to punish his wife for her behavior. Anomie theory would explain this behavior as a refusal to conform toconventional social goals and norms. D. The date itself - and the willingness of some females toengage in sexual conduct - may further underpin his behavior. The core concepts of this school of thought include thebelief that people choose all behavior, their choices can be controlled byfear of punishment, and the more severe and swift the punishment, thegreater the ability to control criminality. From the perspective of cultural deviance theory, Cloward and Ohlin(196 ) maintain that this young man may well have been exposed to rolemodels and opportunities that predispose him toward deviance rather thanconformity. He may deny the nature of the injury he has inflicted, ordeny that the victim had a right to be free of such attacks. Rational choice theory does not appear to apply very well to thisparticular type of deviant behavior. Thus, choice theory, along with conflict theory appears to be the mostlikely explanations of this particular type of criminal action. W., & Stein, P. Though she is not under any specialpressure to engage in such behavior, she appears to be motivated to violatenorms and to capitalize upon illegitimate opportunities. If these are the only recognizedand accessible paths to achieving status, the young man may beenvironmentally predisposed toward a career in crime. A., & Byrne, D. Hess, Markson, and Stein (199 ) have pointed out that wife-beating or spousal abuse is a problem that cuts across all economic,social, ethnic, and educational boundaries. His wife may be perceived as a suitable target for venting hisanger and frustration. From the perspective of stain theory and Merton's (1957) theory ofanomie, the young man is rebelling against society and substitutingshortcuts via criminality to achieve the outward signs and symbols ofstatus in his society. Individual personality may beas significant in leading to family violence as any particular alternativevariables. It is furtherpossible, according to strain theory, that this wife-beating male haslittle interaction with the strong institutional controls exerted byfamily, church, and polity that might otherwise mitigate against hisbehavior (Siegel, 2 ). Thus, the young man may have rationally elected toengage in risk behavior because of the putatively greater rewards of suchbehavior (Siegel, 2 ). Inother words, the man may think through the pros and cons of allowing hisaggression to become violently directed against his wife. By refusing to conform and rebelling againstsocial norms, this young man substitutes an alternative set of goals andmeans for conventional ones. Inmiddle-class families, standards of behavior are generally wellestablished, as are determinants of moral and ethical values. From the perspective of cultural deviance theory, it is often proposedthat much crime is related to the adherence of individuals to theprevailing cultural demands of lower-class society (Siegel, 2 ). The question of whether or not classical/choice theory is applicableis somewhat more difficult to resolve. Lack of conventional opportunity canforce choice that is not necessarily rational or well thought out. If successful, innovation can have serious and long-termsocial consequences. From the perspective of conflict theory, it could be argued thatthis trader is behaving in a prototypically capitalist manner, with crimeas connected to the inequities found in the capitalist system (Siegel,2 ). He may alsoperceive that he has been offered an opportunity for sexual intercourse andthat an ultimate denial of this opportunity is an attack of a personalnature. Indeed, there are those who wouldsuggest that cheating on income tax is an acceptable form of behavior.However, it is still illegal and can be accompanied by often quite severesanctions when it occurs. Mischel, W. People who choose crime, including prostitution, may be more impulsive andhave less self-control than other people, may be under stress, or may befacing some serious personal problem which forces them to choose riskybehavior. Sociology.New York: Macmillan. It is even possible that theabusive adult male may have been the victim of childhood abuse himself ormay have learned violent behavior by observing such behavior in his ownchildhood. Paul, MN:West Publishing. Several of the theoriesthat have been discussed herein are clearly capable of explaining why sucha choice might be made. It is also possible, according to Baron and Byrne (2 ), that he mayblame the victim for his actions. Only the case of the physician whocheats on his taxes appears to be most readily explained by rational choicetheory. Social learning and control theories (both a form of social processtheory) may also provide insight into how and why such behaviors occur.Generally, under differential association theory, the wife-abusing man maybelieve that his wife is "pushing him around" and that a violent responseis therefore acceptable (Siegel, 2 ). It must, however, be noted thatindividual personality traits, values, norms and mores are undoubtedly atwork in such cases. The gang provides an alternative method of gainingsuccess and venting anger, while crime and delinquency offers a new methodfor gaining success and achieving the status symbols of the middle-class. Theoverarching purpose of the report was to demonstrate that within certainlimitations, each of the five theories of criminal causation can be used toexplain widely different types of criminal behavior. He may besupported in his activities by his peer group, who also search for taxloopholes to maximize their income (Siegel, 2 ). If the young manhad engaged in victimizing behaviors in the past and not experienced anynegative fallout, he may feel safe in continuing that behavior. However, while the notion thatthis educated, informed, and knowledgeable stockbroker has rationallychosen to commit crime is appropriate in that he appears to be bothmotivated to commit crime and to have adequate access via routineactivities to criminal action. The five theoretical explanations of criminality are:classical or "choice" theory, strain theory, cultural deviance theory,social processing theory, and conflict theory. This young man is alsopresented with differential opportunity that may inadvertently direct himtoward deviant or criminal behavior. Each case will be addressedin a separate section, below.Insider Trading The first scenario involves a case in which a Wall Street brokerpossessed of an advanced degree from Harvard, who engages in insidertrading practices and earns a million dollars over the course of fiveyears. Further, byassociating continually with others who have chosen criminal activityrather than conventional law-abiding (and potentially less lucrative)activities, such behaviors are reinforced. Each of these theories postulates, to varying degrees,that the young man may be attracted to deviant behavior because he has beenlabeled deviant or potentially deviant by society because of his ethnicityand economic status. Thishypothetical woman comes from a suburban, white, middle-class family inwhich it may well be assumed that prostitution is not regarded as a viableoccupation. Consequently, in beating his wife he may simply bemodeling cultural behaviors that he regards as tolerable and evenacceptable. This particular criminal is violating the norms of hispossession and the laws with which he is certainly very familiar. Siegel (2 )has noted that neutralizing both the effects of crime and its victims isone way in which certain criminal offenders justify to themselves (andothers) even the most heinous actions. In terms of sexuality and power relations, hebehaves in normless manner and runs the risk of encountering criminalsanctions. Because this is the case, he perceives himself as in direct conflict withmainstream society and as outside of that society. Of the five theories, classical or choice theory appears to be themost appropriate for explaining this case. This man may denythat he is responsible for his behavior and blame his victim for provokinghim into it. His choice may also have been influenced by the variables of learningand association. Siegel (2 ) contends that under the rational choiceapproach, law-violating behavior occurs when an offender decides to risktransgressing after considering both personal and situational factors. It could, perhaps, be arguedthat the male who rapes his dates believes that he is free from potentialcriminal prosecution because of the actions of the women with whom he isinvolved. Sutherland, E. The social behavior orientation - reflected inboth cultural deviance theory and social process theory - assumes afundamental continuity between normal and abnormal behavior. Under rational choice theory, anindividual can be said to weigh the consequences and advantages of criminalactivity and to make a reasonably and informed decision based on therelative merits of acting or failing to act. Social Theory and Social Structure. His crime may be an expression of rage over unjust conditions anda reaction to the unfair distribution of wealth and power in society.Summary and Conclusion This report has applied five specific theories of criminal behaviorto seven different scenarios involving different criminal acts. In this instance, choice theory appears to apply in that theyoung woman may wish to avoid beginning her post-college life with afinancial debt or may wish to avoid imposing the cost of college on herparents. Merton, R. The criminal behavior at work herein is an expression of general needsand values that are also expressed by noncriminal behavior. Finally, cultural deviance theory can explain this young man'sactions. Delinquency and Opportunity: ATheory of Delinquent Gangs. Perrucci, R., & Knudsen, D. Siegel (2 ) states that accordingto the rational choice approach, law-violating behavior occurs when anoffender decides to risk transgressing after considering both personalfactors and situational factors. The man may also have been socialized to physically strike outat others and deflect criticism with aggression (Siegel, 2 ). As Cohen (1955) has pointed out,these young men are frustrated by their inability to succeed throughfollowing socially approved paths toward success. Though this is a white-collar crime, it isnevertheless a crime that can be caused by motivation, neutralization ofsocial controls, and opportunity (Hess, Markson, & Stein, 199 ). Classical or choice theory posits that individuals make choicesrelated to the opportunities that they are able to access and the ease inwhich they are able to select targets for criminal activity (Siegel, 2 ). Coleman (1989) suggests that spousal and child abuseare crimes that are generated by individuals who are themselvespsychologically maladapted. Because legitimate means to achieve thesegoals are stratified across class and status, the young man may feellegitimately that his likelihood of acquiring the signs and symbols ofsuccess are limited. White-collar criminals are typically people with access to the resources neededto commit crime (opportunity) and in situations where the probability ofbeing caught is relatively small (neutralization of social controls). Glencoe,IL: The Free Press. However, conflict theorists believe that criminal and civil laware weapons employed by the affluent to maintain their dominance in theclass struggle (Siegel, 2 ). B., Markson, E. The radical feminist subtext of conflict theory would posit that whatis at work in date rape is nothing more than overt gender dominance(Siegel, 2 ). Perrucci andKnudsen (199 ) would therefore agree that anomie theory appears to be themost appropriate explanation of this young woman's behavior.Car Theft, Youth Gangs, and Poverty The third scenario involves a young Hispanic boy from an inner citypoor neighborhood who joins a gang for protection and learns to steal carsin order to earn money. Merton (1957) contends that innovation as analternative to conformity occurs when an individual accepts the goals ofsociety but either rejects or is incapable of attaining them fromlegitimate means. From the perspective of cultural deviance theory, which is generallyapplied to specific social and economic groups, it is argued that clingingto lower class focal concerns promotes illegal or violent behavior (Siegel,2 ). Social process theories, particularly differential association,proposed that the delinquent young man adopt a set of norms and principlesthat directly oppose middle-class values. Boston:Allyn and Bacon. If the punishment to which he would be subjected islittle more than the payment of the appropriate tax in addition to a fine,he may not fear punishment sufficiently to stop the behavior. Cultural deviance theory also appears to be inappropriate inexplaining this particular type of criminal activity. From the Marxist perspective and that of other conflict theoristsas well, capitalism is perceived as rendering both the proletariat and thebourgeoisie crime-prone and upper class or more affluent individuals commitcrimes if they sense a good opportunity to make a financial gain. Social process theory, particularly with respect to differentialassociation theory, does not apply to the present case as strongly as doother theories. Underthis theoretical orientation, the broker may be seen as responding to thedrive toward success at any price that is said to push wealthierindividuals toward criminality (Siegel, 2 ). If his wife allows the beating to continue, her own behaviormay be said to culturally reinforce the attitudes and behaviors of herhusband. Menspecifically mistrust women's statements about sexual interest andconsequently often fail to take it seriously when women say no (Baron &Byrne, 2 ). Cases and Theories of CriminalityIntroduction The purpose of this report is to employ five theories of criminologyto a series of seven scenarios involving some type of criminal behavior,identifying which of the theories is either most or least applicable toeach scenario. Social process theory is also applicable in that once caught, thisyoung man will ultimately be labeled as delinquent or deviant (Siegel,2 ). He is also potentially responding to the influences exerted byfamily relationships, peer group associations, occupational experiences,and interactions with authority figures. He may see himself as engaged in astruggle for dominance with his dates or with women in general. Siegel (2 ), along with Perrucci and Knudsen(199 ), believe that social process theories draw attention to the ways inwhich individuals and institutions, organizations, and normative socialprocesses interact. He maytherefore believe that he is acting out his own autonomy by controlling anddictating the behavior of the female. Cloward and Ohlin (196 ),in their theory of delinquency and opportunity, argue that group norms maybe more significant in terms of supporting such behaviors than has oftenbeen understood. Conflict theory does not apply in this instance because there appearsto be little conflict between this young woman and society at large and herfamily in particular. He most probably weighed the potentialbenefits and consequences of his actions and decided that the rewards weregreater than the possible negative consequences.The Middle-Class Wife-Beater In the case of a middle-class husband who habitually beats his wife,any number of the five theoretical perspectives on crime may well beapplicable. Thisorientation sees deviance as governed by the same laws that might, underother specific circumstances, lead to adequate or even creative behavior(Mischel, 1971). As Siegel (2 ) claims, this young man may not perceivethat conventional alternatives and opportunities exist which would be anattractive alternative to crime. Thus, it might be that the stockbroker,in his drive for success is emulating values that he finds in his milieu. The wife may be perceived aspartially a cause of the frustration experienced by the husband, whosealienation from society and appropriate norms may lead him to strike outagainst his wife as a symbolic representative of the social institutions orindividual actors against whom his anger is directed. The male mayknow himself or believe himself to be a victim of oppression and, thoughunable to express his frustration directly to those responsible for it, hemay instead focus his anger on his accessible partner (Siegel, 2 ).Power relations may tacitly be used by the man to support his behavior. With limited opportunity for success inconventional careers or in school, this young man is capitalizing upondifferential opportunities to maximize his own sense of self and of value.It is this theory, along with Merton's (1957) definition of anomie thatappears to be most appropriate in explaining this particular scenario.The Physician Who Cheats On His Taxes The fourth scenario involves a middle-class physician with an incomeof $9 , per year who regularly cheats on his income tax. Cultural theory, as proposed by Cohen (1955), may also be applicablein this case. In this instance, the young woman has chosen to securefinancial stability and perhaps even luxuries through an illegal ifvictimless act. Further,he may regard sex as a form of control and may in fact neutralize anyinjury done to his victim or the victim herself. Attribution theory, which combines elements of several ofthe theories discussed above, may therefore most clearly and appropriatelybe used in explaining date rape.Robbery versus McDonald's The final scenario to be considered in this report involves a teenageinner city male who pursues armed robbery as a means of obtaining money.The young man has chosen a criminal career rather than accept work at aMcDonald's restaurant that pays the minimum wage. It is most likely that rational choice theory was at work in makingthis physician willing to cheat. Belonging to a gang provides him with a peerreference group that shares his values (or whose values he adopts) andfosters comfort in innovative behavior designed to resolve the problem ofpoverty. Social process theories, particularly neutralization theory andcontrol theory, would suggest that the young man may have a low level ofself-esteem and may perceive himself as deserving of getting his own wayregardless of the attitude of his date (Siegel, 2 ).
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