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HUMAN RIGHTS IN CHINA.
Term Paper ID:30103
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Essay Subject:
Examines the human rights status of young people and women.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines the human rights status of young people and women. Historical and cultural background of human rights issue in China. Conditions faced by women and children. 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Pattern of human rights violations in China since the 1949 Revolution. Abuses. Position of women. Prospsects for improving human rights abuses.
Paper Introduction:
This research examines the human-rights status of young people and women in the People's Republic of China (P.R.C.). The research will set forth the historical and cultural background in which human-rights issue fronts have emerged in the P.R.C., particularly with respect to conditions faced by women and children in the country, and then discuss the prospect of improvement of those conditions.
In 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was promulgated by unanimous vote of the United Nations General Assembly. That Declaration articulated what the title implied:
respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. The declaration proclaims the personal, civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights of man, none of which is subject to limitation except to secure
Text of the Paper:
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perspective of China's rights policydiffers from the P.R.C.'s. RandleEdwards, Louis Henkin, & Andrew J. is, however, of special note, forwomen inevitably cut across all other segments of society. E.Sharpe, Inc. Population and Development Review, 17, 35-51. 5). Michael, F., & Wu, Y. New York: M. J. Human Rights in the People's Republic ofChina. A. Women. 5). Population and Development Review,19, 283-3 2. Universal declaration ofhuman rights (1948). is another greatmisadventure that is founded on ideology rather than reality" (199 , p. In Anhui province in the early 198 s, women who got pregnant outside the plan "would be taken to commune headquarters and criticised until they agreed to an abortion." (Davin, 1985, p. Nathan, A.J. (1991). There are laws covering all fields of social life, providing a comprehensive judicial guarantee for the various human rights of the citizens (China, 2 1).Nothing about this articulation of P.R.C. . Far Eastern Economic Review, 156, 5. This research examines the human-rights status of young people andwomen in the People's Republic of China (P.R.C.). A somewhat different view is offered by Nathan (1986, p. (2 1, April9). Zhang, L., & Yang, X. Van Ness (1996) cites some 2 separate human-rights agreementssuccessfully negotiated at the U.N. Metzler, J. 8) says ofMao's attitude toward the pattern of inviting comment and then suppressingit is equally applicable to subsequent P.R.C. Lent, J. Chinese women who become pregnant while studying abroad have received orders from home to abort or else (Free, 1993b, p. Indeed, in its most recent White Paper on Human Rights,the P.R.C. participation in divisions of cash, and (for males) receipt of housing land at the time of marriage" (Greenhalgh, Zhu, & Li, 1994, p. Onthat view, the P.R.C. Kane(Eds.). 71). (1988). . The overlap and convergence of state-sponsored family planning andhuman-rights abuses can be connected to the CCP's exploitation of tradition-based arrangements of life in China. Foreign Affairs, 78,65. touts the "safeguarding and promotion of the people's rights tosubsistence and development on the top of its agenda," formulating humanrights in terms of economic development and "national strength" (China,2 1). Westport,Connecticut: Greenwood Press. Parents considersons important for reasons aside from a general liking of children: assources of support in their old age, of continuation of the ancestral line,and of contribution to a household labor force. Counterrevolutionaries. Free the masses: China has too much state, not too many people.(1993b, July 8). Indeed, reports of coercionabound: 1. Thetreatment of women's rights in the P.R.C. hegemonism has not prevented it fromengaging actively in economic agreements with the West. Chang citespositive incentives for compliance, plus such coercion as "involuntaryinsertion of intrauterine devices (IUDs) into women, compulsorysterilization, forced abortion, and infanticide" (Chang, 1988, p. 62) complains thatthe P.R.C. (1991). However, Cohen also notes that reports of rights violationsin Tibet came before the General Assembly in 1959, 1961, and 1965, and thatthe issues were never debated openly, either before or after P.R.C. Greenhalgh, S. . China repudiated the Cultural Revolution, chiefly by blaming itsexcesses on the Gang of Four, which included Madame Mao. Randle Edwards, Louis Henkin, & Andrew J. Aird, J. 319). Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. 2. C. Davin, & P. F. If ideology governs administration, it follows that human rights ingeneral and women's reproductive freedom in particular are incidentalinstrumentalities of social control. Human Rights in Contemporary China. Croll, D. 9-17. In other words, if female education is a good guard againstincreased births, the P.R.C. system would collapse of its own weight, much as theSoviet Union did, though Heilbrun says that the two systems are notdirectly comparable. Rural peasants aretypically excluded from pension eligibility, which helps explain higherbirth rates in the countryside than in the city (Johnson, 1994),particularly if a family has no sons. Nathan (Eds.). During the Clintonadministration, a policy of "constructive engagement" was pursued, suchthat economic development for China would anticipate increase of humanrights. S. . One provincial paper reported the murder by a partyofficial of his two daughters and his wife, who had just given birth to athird daughter. Feldman (Ed.). 92). It has been custom and practice in the U.N. Franz Michael & Yuan-li Wu (Eds.). 388). Beijing bull: It's time to stop fearingChina. Journal of International Affairs, 49, 3 9-331. Retrieved from the World Wide Web 5 May 2 1, athttp://english.peopledaily.com.cn/2 1 4/ 9/eng2 1 4 9_67254.html. What Bullard (1984, p. The force be with you. (1988). The missing girls of china: a newdemographic account. Aird, J.S. Further, the Chinese,"among other peoples, are culturally universalistic in their beliefs; theybelieve in their own conceptions of rights and democracy and criticize'bourgeois democracy' for its failings." In any case, he acknowledges thatas of 1986 the rights picture in China is muddied. 15) comment on "a clear increase in the proportion of malebabies . Addressing the human rights issue in Sino-American relations. 449). Martin's Press. Yuan-li Wu &Franz Michael (Eds.). Fines are levied on violators of the one-child policy. . Slaughter of the innocents: coercive birth controlin China. 1-21. Gregor, A.J. J. (1995, August 14). The history of the P.R.C. Adherence to party line, indeed, is evident infamily-planning-related articles in a key CCP publication, the BeijingReview. References were to "collective rights"; the appeal was to nationalism. (1986). Asian values. were inspired not by 'reality' but by ideology.China's compulsory family planning program . (1992, April 13). Leadingtheorists of neoauthoritarianism conceived of it well within the boundariesof CCP ideology. J. Kane (Eds.). (1984, September). Boulder: WestviewPress. E.Sharpe, Inc. and in the groves of academe, thoughhuman-rights violations were being documented right along. More generally, human-rights dialogues and speeches werespecifically censored at the 1995 international U.N. Wilson, R. wasadmitted. Unregistered Chinese "are ineligible for allocations of crop land . A. However, as Greenhalgh says, making womenmore available to childbearing reinforced the traditional subordination oftheir bodies to social pressures of a more familiar modality. since the 1949 revolution has been marked bypatterns of human-rights violations that have been associated with theideological revolutionary posture assumed by Mao Zedong. The human-rightsimplications of this may be derived from a 1969 report by Time on thecontent of the Cultural Revolution, which noted that "the Chinese made apractice of marching prisoners to the center of the river, accusing them ofbeing pro-Soviet traitors, and then beheading them" (Gross, 1974, p. But such preferences are less sentimental than an attribute of "well-founded fears about financial security and physical well-being in old age"(1985, p. Yuan-li Wu & Franz Michael (Eds.). (1999, July-August). (1995, September 11). Charter and the Declaration emerged, notably the aftermath of WorldWar II, replete with "reaction of the internal community to the horrors ofthat war and the bestiality of the regimes which unleashed it" (U.N.Department, 1984, p. Son preference and the one child policyin China--1979-1988. Nathan(Eds.). Feldman, H. Mao's ideology waspredicated of the concept of permanent revolution, which by implicationmeant permanent violence internal to Chinese experience. Journal ofInternational Affairs, 5 , 166-192. to distinguish betweencivil and political rights on one hand and economic, social, and culturalrights on the other, though as a matter of official policy U.N. Aird (199 ) considers China's one-child policy as part of a wholerange of human-rights violations from the time of the 1949 revolution. Human Rights in the People'sRepublic of China. Bullard, M. Croll, D. 8). Manual on human rights reporting undersix major international human rights instruments. 125-6) applauds what he sees as theP.R.C.'s wish "to see firmly established a socialist legal system thatgrants some measure of inviolability to persons," while also citing theChinese stress on "the positive rights of a guardian social order."Moreover, Wilson does not credit the Universal Declaration as universallyapplicable in all national or cultural contexts because it derives fromtraditional normative morality. Aird says that the P.R.C.'s "policy mistakes, includingcollectivization, the Great Leap Forward, and the Great ProletarianCultural Revolution . Population Bulletin, 47, 2-43. Further, as Cohennotes, "it was the Chinese by their own public admissions who called forththe first governmental comment on their human rights practices" (Cohen,1987, p. R. 125-164. has longacknowledged overlap and convergence of all fundamental human rights (U.N.Centre, 1991). On theother hand, P.R.C.'s series of White Papers on human rights make much ofits protecting "the most basic" of all rights, which is the right tosubsistence, and which the Western democracies by no means guarantee(Moody, 1996). Gross, F. H. Britannica 2 1 Deluxe Edition. 3. Heilbrunn, J. Restraining populationgrowth in three Chinese villages, 1988-93. Revolutionary party: essays in the sociology ofpolitics. China: Full text of white paper on China's human rights. . An extended-family tradition,particularly in rural areas, is difficult to overstate. (1974). (1985). Human Rights Quarterly, 9, 447-549. New York: United Nations. Davin, & P. Deng made a major policy speech that calledfor abolishing "the four big freedoms--freedom to speak out freely, to airviews fully, to hold debates, and to write all posters"; instead, peopleshould stop complaining and get down to work (Lent, 1981, p. Tien, H.Y., Tianlu, Z., Yu., P., Jingneng, L., & Zhongtang, L. However, Van Ness also says that the values have by no means been putinto practice because of the tendency of member states, including bothChina and the U.S., to ignore human-rights violations by friendly statesand to "forcefully condemn" violations by geopolitical opponents (Van Ness,1996). 6). Victims by economic category: Farmers, businesspeople,and workers. That fact must be noted inany review of whatever other declarations are made about "progress" and"reform" of governmental entities that oversee implementation of humanrights. Tiananmen Square in 1989clarified it dramatically. in1971, the P.R.C. (1981). Constitutional Reform andthe Future of the Republic of China. Controlling births and bodies invillage China. Michael (Eds.). as the most radically anti-woman regime on earth at the time and (inan article double-bylined by two men) called for an organized boycott ofthe event. References Abzug, B., Antrobus, P., Posadskaya, A., Hassan, C.B.R., Kissling, F.,Shiva, V., Maathai, W, Tax, M. are whatever a guardian state says they are, based on itsconcept of rights. Chicago: EncyclopędiaBritannica, Inc. bodies, including itspermanent seat on the Security Council. Wu & F. (1988). One woman (Bella Abzug) concerned with human rights who attendedthat conference replied that the "politics of momentum" for placing women'sissues on the geopolitical table was a more important dynamic than aboycott that would amount to self-censorship (Abzug & Others, 1995). NGOs are meant to function as the link of advocacy between individualsand governments, and to bring to the attention of the internationalcommunity violations of individual rights. HumanRights in Contemporary China. However, educational opportunities have not been equally available toall women in the P.R.C.. Conference on Women(More, 1995). Freedom of the press in East Asia. (1994, January 27). . Ultimate authority rests with members of the Politburo. A story on China's population policy declares that participants ina meeting of a key CCP committee "unanimously stressed the importance andurgency of strictly controlling population growth" (Zhang & Yang, 1992, p.17). (1994, June). 138-153. Human Rights Commission has beenassociated with the fact that during the 199 s the P.R.C. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. Davin, D. v).Greenhalgh, Zhu, and Li also cite the "continuing power of the party-state"based on the four cardinal principles, which tend to justify ideologicallyvirtually any structure that economic or social reforms might assume fromtime to time (1994, p. Taking CCP control of the government as itspoint of departure, the U.S. (1995, September 9). (1984). Johansson and Nygren (1991) refer to "the missing girls ofChina" in a survey of change in sex ratios from 197 to 1987. In that view, anaggrieved China could simply co-opt foreign investments. J., Tien, H., Hong, Y., & Winckler, E. (1991).Constitutional conundrum and the need for reform. The P.R.C.'s critique of U.S. American Ethnologist, 21, 3-3 . Leaders stress the need to maintain stability and social order and are committed to perpetuating the rule of the CCP and its hierarchy. China's One-Child Family Policy. . isan authoritarian state: At the national and regional levels, Party members hold almost all top government, police, and military positions. or in Tibet. Defining human rights in the People'sRepublic of China. To focus on the policy itselfis to imply a limitation of human rights. Human Rights in the People's Republic of China. finds expression in the record of rightsabuses that have marked the CCP's hold on power since 1949. (1985). 391). Topping the list of priorities on the issue: "strengthening of Partyleadership . 527) notes that the education ofrural youth, "especially girls, received no mention" in a 1993 report onrural reform. Time, 151, 26-3 . The position ofyoung people is also implicated in the position of women, as will be seenhereafter. Feldman (Ed.). (1994, February). . Washington, DC: The AEI Press. newspapersthat during the 198 s reported the phenomenon of exposed (female) childrenin some provinces. Chinese representatives resisted any mention of Hong Kong or Macao or Tibet in the context of human rights and parried questions about human rights abuses in China, arguing that this was a purely domestic issue (Copper, 1988, pp. 226).As early as the Hundred Flowers Movement of 1957, on the other hand, Maoencouraged the intelligentsia to air their views of Chinese Communist Party(CCP) policy, with the aim of "involving students more directly in thecountry's economic reconstruction, while at the same time serving as acheck on the bureaucratism of officials" (Rosen, 1989, p. . HumanRights in East Asia: A Cultural Perspective. Human Rights in the People's Republic of China. 28). Constitutional Reform andthe Future of the Republic of China. 37-82. China's White Paper declares that "all power" rests with the people,but it also explains that political activity occurs "under the leadershipof the Communist Party of China" (China, 2 1). H. government takes the view that the P.R.C. That Declarationarticulated what the title implied: respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. . New York:Paragon House Publishers. . Philanthropy for Peking: The UnitedNations profile on mainland China. Itled to a veiled attack on Mao Zedong, after which the Chinese authoritiesbrutally suppressed the rally", resulting in violence and bloodshed"(Michael & Wu, 1988, p. . Department of State Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor.(2 1). Martin's Press. 33), andare mediated by ideological "reeducation" of bourgeois elements. These sources, presumably objective, are tainted by their connection to established philosophical traditions. Population and DevelopmentReview, 2 , 365-95. New York: Columbia University Press. [D]emands of a "one-child family" can lead to the neglect--or worse-- of a second child, thereby increasing the infant mortality rate (Sen, 1994, p. Country reports on human rights practices: China (includes HongKong and Macau). In the aftermathof Tiananmen 1989, Deng toured China while touting the grand benefits of aso-called "socialist market economy," marked by " return to the policies ofeconomic liberalization, a repudiation of what had been previouslyconsidered the socialist economic system, and continued politicalautocracy" (Moody, 1996, p. This is also consistent with the idea that engaging in free tradewith China will force it to comply with regimes of both capitalistprotocols and an increase of individual freedoms. about various politicalcrackdowns in the P.R.C. By 1989, debate over democracy and individual rights had reemerged,marked by calls for reforming traditional CCP political control in thedirection of a less overtly oppressive "new" authoritarianism. 1 9-128. As might be expected the U.S. 1). Henkin cites evidence showing that rights not specifically granted,such as freedom to choose one's residence and career, "are not in factenjoyed" and that those that are specifically promised, such as politicalparticipation, "are in fact limited by the perceived needs of socialism, ofthe Chinese state, or of the current government" (Henkin, 1986, p. The New Republic, 219, 21-3. (1996, Summer). That is because the CCP is in theleadership position, which the White Paper acknowledges "is an importantcomponent of China's democratic political system" (China, 2 1). Wu, N. Chang (1988) cites P.R.C. (1984). Yi, Z., Ping, T., Baochang, G., Yi, X.., Bohua, L., & Yongping,L.(1993, June). New York: St. 28), which can lead to indefiniteincarceration. J. The U.N. Gill, B. in 1971 and ouster of the Republic ofChina (Taiwan/Formosa) confirmed as an official geopolitical matter whathad been the de facto case since 1949, that the ROC could not, as it hadclaimed for some 2 years, credibly represent the mainland internationally.The P.R.C. . Boulder:Westview Press. Economist, 336, 4 -1. They reportedly forced party officials to relax the policyfor a variety of reasons, which would seem to be positive from thestandpoint of individual freedom. Preface. . Boulder:Westview Press. over the course of its history as proofof the U.N.'s ability to shape a culture of shared values on the diplomaticscene. Single-child family policy in the countryside.China's One-Child Family Policy. Chang, M. Charter acknowledges the standing and value ofnonofficial channels of information on the subject of human rights andauthorizes the Economic and Social Council "to make suitable arrangementsfor consultation with non-governmental organizations [NGOs] which areconcerned with matters within its competence" (U.N. signed two U.N.Covenants on economic, social, cultural, civil, and political rights,partly as a way of avoiding formal censure through a U.S.-sponsoredresolution critical of the Beijing regime (Goldman, 2 1). Cohen, R. China's population policy.Beijing Review, 35, 17-2 . McGeary, J. W. Population: delusion and reality. 22). 15-16). Rosen, S. In 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was promulgated byunanimous vote of the United Nations General Assembly. (1986). However, the P.R.C. Davis-Friedmann, D. Party hegemonypermeates virtually all aspects of civil and private life and specificallyand programmatically prohibits organizational challenges to partyauthority. Wu, Y. TheNew York Review, 62-71. Others called formaking human rights "a priority issue," since that "could help underscorethe fragility of the government's legitimacy" (Heilbrun, 1998, p. Sen, A. However, after joining the U.N. U.N. There is evidence of traditional preference of elderly for largenumbers of grandchildren and the documented resistance of elderly to everygovernment-sponsored birth-control campaign in China (Davis-Friedmann,1985). Copper, J. Feldman, H. Y. Greenhalgh, S., Zhu, C., & Li, N. 5. (1986). The declaration proclaims the personal, civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights of man, none of which is subject to limitation except to secure recognition for the rights and freedoms and to meet the requirements of morality, public order, and general welfare (U.N., 2 1).It is difficult to overstate the geopolitical conditions under which theU.N. (1985). J., Tien, H., Hong, Y., & Winckler, E. Human RightsQuarterly, 3, 137-149. 3-9. Human Rightsin Contemporary China. Citizens lack both the freedom peacefully to express organized opposition to the Party-led political system and the right to change their national leaders or form of Government (U.S. 149-61. For example: Attaching great importance to safeguarding human rights through perfecting legislation, ensuring an impartial judicature and strictly enforcing the law, China has made considerable progress in building a judicial guarantee for human rights. 125-164. Casey, R.P., & George, R.P. Moody, P.R., Jr. 115).The conclusion Wilson implies and does not quite state is that human rightsin the P.R.C. assumed Taiwan's membership in all U.N. Nathan, A.J. economicassistance, but nothing was raised in the U.N. . is failing to implement the policy in thecountryside, where large families are valued so highly. His defense: He didn't want to go through life without ason. undoubtedly related to the government's population policy."One view of the increased ratio of male to female births in China between1982 and 1988 is that it supports, variously, a significant underreportingof female births, prenatal sex determination and consequent abortion ofless preferred female fetuses, and female infanticide and abandonment thathad not been seen since prerevolutionary China (Yi et al., 1993). Whencriticism increased so much that students attempted to establish reformsindependent of CCP authority, the party prevented students from bypassingofficially sanctioned channels for reform (e.g., the Communist YouthLeague): "In the aftermath, a thousand senior party officials weretransferred to work in universities and middle schools, new courses inpolitical study were added, and a campaign against 'rightists' was begun"(Rosen, 1989, pp. grantsstanding are obliged to adhere to the four cardinal principles (U.S.Department, 2 1). Causes and implications of the recent increase in thereported sex ratio at birth in China. Johnson (1994, p. People's Republic of China: The humanrights exception. "refused to participate in the Commission on Human Rights,preferring to expand on the subject of human rights in the Economic andSocial Council and in particular in the Commission on the Status of Women."When the P.R.C. [in] family planning work" (Zhang & Yang, 1992, p. Van Ness, P. (1987, November). On globalizing genderjustice. 77). (2 1). Sources of Chinese rights thinking. In some Chinese villages, officials compel women to be sterilised or have pregnancies terminated. Boulder: Westview Press. United Nations andhuman rights. [M]ove away from the notion of rights as legitimated by natural law of a set of moral principles. The ideological foundation consists in the so-called four cardinalprinciples, first enunciated by Mao but observed as well by Deng Xiaopingand repeatedly invoked: "leadership of the Chinese Communist party, thesocialist road, the dictatorship of the proletariat, and Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong Thought" (Michael & Wu, 1988, p. What hadhappened to the political debates was that they had turned into a newdemocracy movement, and thence into the famous June 4, 1989, massacre inTiananmen Square in Beijing, which effectively deposed the rhetoric ofdissent in the country. How China handles population and familyplanning. United Nations General Assembly. Randle Edwards, Louis Henkin, and AndrewJ. P.R.C. Department, 1988, p.21). Old age security and the one-childcampaign. Boulder: Westview Press, 1988. United Nations Centre for Human Rights, and United Nations Institutefor Training and Research. People's Daily Online. 149). (1998, June 29). At the time of the Great Leap Forward in the late 195 s, women wereencouraged to have many children; a large population, said Mao, everappealing to ideological commitment, would defeat external enemies. Sen (1994) cites China's progress in providing more educationalopportunities for women as having greater impact on reducing fertility thanthe one-child policy and in favor of the idea that zero-population growthin China can be explained by other factors. Whilenever addressing the Malthusian folly embedded in Mao's policy, the CCPreversed and restricted couples to having one child in 1979. But throughout the 198 s, China had made a practice ofwarning foreign journalists not to report on dissent and debate in China.For much of that period, China appears to have been virtually exempted fromhuman-rights criticism in the U.N. In 1982, China received some $3 million in U.N. admission to the U.N. In that regard, the National Review (1995) characterized theP.R.C. New York: Columbia University Press. Some critics of thatpolicy advocated American isolation from China on ideological grounds.Others, notably Henry Kissinger, advocated "decoupling" of human rightsfrom any agenda with a great power such as China. Rights in the People's Republic of China. 189). 25 -267. Retrieved from the World Wide Web 5 May 2 1, athttp://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2 / eap/index.cfm?docid=684. Beijing Review, 37, 8-12. 163), who,writing several years before the 1989 Tiananmen Square Massacre, points outthat cultural relativism is in fact a Western idea. Families choosing to have more than one child could be "denied permission to build a house, have their electricity and water cut off, lose work preference and so on" (Free, 1993b, p. Femalefetuses, which can be identified by ultrasound, are said to be routinelyaborted in China, based on the historic Chinese preference for malechildren (U.S. Department, 2 1). 77-8). Other observers (e.g., Tien &Others, 1992, p. Limited engagement. Student Political Activism. Henkin, L. . Department, 2 1).This evaluation of the P.R.C. did speak on the subject, Copper explains, it seemed to define human rights in terms of rectifying problems or abuses fostered by imperialism, colonialism, and racism. More successful, in my opinion, than the traditional method of legitimating rights by establishing logical connections between them and a presumably unblemished external referent, have been recent investigations by modern psychologists into a culture-free, species-shared process of individual moral development (Wilson, 1985, p. 45). 18;emphasis added). (1996, Winter). The research will setforth the historical and cultural background in which human-rights issuefronts have emerged in the P.R.C., particularly with respect to conditionsfaced by women and children in the country, and then discuss the prospectof improvement of those conditions. (1989). . During the 198 s and 199 s, those whose individual rights were limitedincluded counterrevolutionaries (Gregor, 1988) farmers, entrepreneurs,workers (Wu, 1988), women, non-Chinese ethnics, and religious minorities(Bates, 1999). Human Rights in thePeople's Republic of China. . . E. China's political-military evolution: The party& the military in the P.R.C., 196 -1984. How bad is China? R. (1994, September 22). Li and Cooney (1993) describe China's long tradition of preferringmale to female children as a 2, -year-old cultural norm. has "coopted the U.N. (1994, August 1). Population Research and Policy Review, 12, 277-296. 257;Moody, 1996). Johansson, S., & Nygren, O. Greenhalgh (1994)cites a case of rural peasant women who objected to the one-child policyand who were recruited for the purpose of formulating population policy insome villages. Metzler (1984, p. (1988). The social consequences of such compulsion . NewYork: St. (1998, July 6). policy: "Mao saw certainty inuncertainty or order from disorder" (Bullard, 1984, p. (1993). (1991).Constitutional conundrum and the need for reform. policy conflicts with adherenceto the four cardinal principles. A Chinese newspaper warned that if infanticide were not stopped at once a serious imbalance between the sexes would occur and in twenty years' time "a large number of young men will be without spouses" (Aird, 199 , p. development and aid apparatus turningthese financial resources into a practical form of philanthropy forPeking." However, Wilson (1985, pp. E. H. Hegives credence to reports of government-hospital female infanticideatrocities on the ground that "the reports come from widely scatteredcities in China, that they are quite similar in details, and that thepractices they describe have apparently continued over a period of yearswithout official interdiction" (199 , p. Sources of Chinese rights thinking. R. Hsiung (Ed.). A. Just don't go. New York: M. In that tradition,younger generations, particularly male children, are responsible for careof elders. can be appalling. 7-4 . Far EasternEconomic Review, 157, 21. NationalReview, 47, 4 -42. More words than deeds. New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press. 4. The effect in each case was a form of civil war,characterized by destructive purges. However, it was replaced by "the new crime of 'endangering statesecurity'" (McGeary, 1998, p. American membership on the U.N. The Nation, 261, 23 -5. Nathan (Eds.). Further, party status is implicated inprivileging access to social benefits. Li, J., & Cooney, R.S. 141). 75-9 . . (199 ). (1988). 1-21. Issues & Studies, 2 , 51-62. 121-137. (1992).China's demographic dilemmas. is at pains to criticize American"hegemonism," whether the issue is human-rights abuses in China or thestatus of China's defense weaponry (Bates, 1999). Since 1989, registrationprotocols for NGOs have been tightened, and all NGOs that the P.R.C. In 1997, the crime of being a counterrevoutionary wasabolished. That set of affairs is consistentwith a preference in China for male children. Sen continues: [I]f freedom is valued at all, the lack of freedom associated with [one-child policy] must be seen to be a social loss in itself. What was variously called the Tiananmen Incident of 1976 and April 5Movement referred to "the gathering of thousands of Chinese citizens onTian An Men Square on April 5, 1976, to honor the memory of Zhou Enlai. New York: United Nations. China. Department of Public Information. U.S. Human rights idea in contemporary China: Acomparative perspective.
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