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NETHERLANDISH PAINTING.
Term Paper ID:30474
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Essay Subject:
Examines art in the 15th Century.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines art in the 15th Century. New approach to painting of the Netherlandish painters. Development of the technique of oil painting and various innovations. The visual culture created by the artists. Work of artists Robert Campion, Jan Ven Eyck, Roger van der Weyden, Ven der Goes Gertgen, Bosch.
Paper Introduction:
The art of the Netherlandish region in the fifteenth century constitutes one of the most important moments in Western art history. Yet, for various reasons, the art of this period has persistently been seen largely from the perspective of its relationship to contemporary art in Italy. A review of the accomplishments of the Netherlandish painters demonstrates, however, that their work was not important primarily in relation to the art of other regions. This great flourishing of painting had its beginnings in the courtly art of the International Gothic style that flourished at the Burgundian court. The poorly documented artists of the early part of the century, such as Robert Campin and the Master of Flémalle, influenced the great generation of van Eyck and van der Weyden. These artists in turn were the source of the new approach to painting that thrived
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Bosch did not, of course, exert much influence on subsequentNetherlandish painting and his idiosyncrasies in many of his best-knownworks made him an anomaly in the general course of fifteenth-century art.Overall there were few genuine anomalies in this art and the notion ofdevelopment, such as Vasari's concept of the drive-toward-perfection inItalian renaissance art, is not really relevant to early Netherlandish art. Instead they "are bound, like the spectator, tothe earth" as a reminder of humanity's need for the blood of the lamb toaccomplish their admission to heaven (Harbison 84). His work inthese unusual compositions reflected the techniques developed by earlierNetherlandish painters. 1415-1475) Altarpiece of the Virgin at Madrid (Hand & Wolff fig. 1415) painted by the Limbourg brothers Pol, Janand Herman (fl. One partial exception is the Ghent painter Hugo van der Goes (c. The van Eyck altarpiece is one of the most complex fifteenth-centuryworks, a polyptych which has as its central subject the adoration of theLamb of God (i.e., Christ). 1425) (Smith pl. The central triohas one system; there is another for the angels, and Adam and Eve, quiteunusually, are observed from the position of the spectator, who would havebeen some distance below the 12-foot painting located above an altar. The painter who was probably the greatest individualist after vanEyck was Hieronymous Bosch (145 -1516) from the town of Hertogenbosch insouthern Holland. The calm, slim Madonna and her hieratic pose eschew the dramaassociated with Rogier's works, but the playful interaction of the childand the angel displays an interest in psychology alien to Jan. Other painters adopted the Netherlandish style. Two of his works, The Ghent Altarpiece (Harbisonfigs. 57). His meaningful objects--such asthe flowers placed in the foreground--are often deliberately pointed out ina manner Jan avoided and Goes employs conventions, such as the differencein size between the saints and the donors on the side panels, that van Eyckhad summarily rejected. As Harbisonnotes, however, this work is hardly complete and many scholars now holdthat some of the most characteristic of Campin's works must have beenpainted by associates of that artist. New York: Abrams-Perspectives, 1995.Lane, Barbara G. Yet, for variousreasons, the art of this period has persistently been seen largely from theperspective of its relationship to contemporary art in Italy. This meant that an innovative painter, when he did arrive, couldhave the kind of widespread affect of a Rogier or--if his innovations didnot seem conducive to greater spiritual involvement--he could fail toinfluence people, as was the case with van Eyck. As Lane notes, no era surpassed thefifteenth-century in the Netherlands "in the combination of convincingvisual reality and overwhelming spiritual intensity" and the blending ofrecognizable domestic settings and religious subjects speaks to a desire tobring the viewer closer to the experience of the sacred (2). In other cases, such as the Washington Nativity (Hand &Wolff pl. 25) andthe Virgin and Child before a Firescreen (c. But he reverts to the sort of symbolic content that wasfeatured in the art of the Middle Ages. The art of the Netherlandish region in the fifteenth century constitutesone of the most important moments in Western art history. Among the mostimportant of the luxury items that have survived are the illuminatedscriptures and prayerbooks of which the most famous is the Très RichesHeures du Duc de Berry (c. Although theItalian writer Giorgio Vasari attributed the invention of oil painting toJan, the claim merely resulted form his great fame and skill. The goal of these painters was, after all, to inspire religiousfeeling and the means they employed to do this were entirely subordinate tothat end. It is ironic, perhaps,that the two most idiosyncratic painters of the century--van Eyck and Bosch--should both have been concerned with the minutely scrupulous painting ofdetails and the development of an iconography that was either somewhatabstruse, as with van Eyck's, or almost entirely obscure, as with Bosch's.Innovation was not entirely absent from fifteenth-century Netherlandishpainting. He channeled themore radical approaches of Campin and van Eyck into a particular form ofemotional appeal and visual brilliance that made him the dominant influenceof the fifteenth and even the sixteenth centuries. c. These objects weresought after in noble circles to a much greater degree than painting hadbeen since the greater part of Jan van Eyck's (c. The Mirror of the Artist: Northern Renaissance Art in Its Historical Context. Early Netherlandish Painting: From Rogier van der Weyden to Gerard David. London: National Gallery, London-William Collins, 1985. In other words, they offered adetailed, naturalistic picture of an ideal. Harbison notes that Jan employed adifferent perspective system for each set of pictures. The work of the Netherlandishsculptor Claus Sluter (136 -14 6), for example, with its expressivefigures, dramatically deep undercutting, and (long vanished) polychromy andgilding established a standard of realism with which "panel painters werealmost invariably going to compete" (Harbison 44). 6).Regardless of who painted them, they are early examples of majorcharacteristics of fifteenth-century Netherlandish painting with theirnaturalistic attention to detail, the use of domestic interiors, and the"disguised symbolism" that transformed these interiors into appropriatesettings for religious scenes. Geertgen's works such as the Nativity at Night (Smith pl. The poorly documented artists of the early part of thecentury, such as Robert Campin and the Master of Flémalle, influenced thegreat generation of van Eyck and van der Weyden. Inpaintings such as his Madonna and Child with Angels (after 1479) atWashington, Memling is clearly revealed as a devotee of van Eyck's art aswell. 138 -1416). A number of important painters whose works have been identified onlyby laborious stylistic analysis have been, to varying degrees, identifiedwith a flourishing school of painting in Haarlem, in what is now Holland.Christus and Bouts, it is often claimed, were students of Albert vanOuwater (fl. In the Mérode Altarpiece, for example, the table symbolizes the altarand the Virgin's virtues are also indicated by symbolic objects: "thelilies, her purity; the book, her wisdom; and the blown-out candle, herhumility" (Philip 94). Rogier's version established a new kind ofrhythm of line and color and achieved a spiritual intensity that "wasimmediately accepted by contemporaries as the classic solution and wascopied and imitated countless times" far into the sixteenth century (Pächt1 ). On the basis of a single fairly firm attribution toOuwater, a Raising of Lazarus at Berlin, and the "stylistic profile of theattested work of Dieric Bouts," however, Pächt assets that such a schooldid exist and that its stylistic imperatives continued in the work ofGeertgen tot Sint Jans, one of the most idiosyncratic of Netherlandishmasters (Pächt 174). This great flourishing of painting had its beginnings in thecourtly art of the International Gothic style that flourished at theBurgundian court. Thefoundation of his achievement was his "new and sophisticated use of the oilmedium . The German-bornpainter Hans Memling (fl. 79), a triptych which showsthe 'marriage' of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden on the left panel anda very striking vision of hell on the left. The depth of his influence canbe seen in the fact that even Petrus Christus (citizen of Bruges 1444-d.1472/73) whose work reflected van Eyck's often enough that he wasconsidered to be his pupil (although there is no evidence that he was evenin Bruges prior to Jan's death) often resorted to Rogier's art for modelsof various religious themes and for types. These artists in turnwere the source of the new approach to painting that thrived throughout thecentury in Bruges, Ghent, Haarlem, and many other cities. But his vision was so personal that their themesand forms are not generally of concern to him. Even leavingquestions of impact aside, they created in a limited time and place, anastonishingly vibrant visual culture of a complexity and quality that isseldom seen in such concentration. to create colors of unprecedented depth and harmony," hisintensive rendering of detail, "textural differentiation, and observationof light" (Lane 153). A far more appealing vision of religious painting wasachieved by Rogier van der Weyden, who was Campin's apprentice in 1427-32at Tournai but achieved his immense success as the official painter of thecity of Brussels. Other arts, especially luxurious decorative products such astapestries and metalwork, were also very important. Goes' work displays an interest in finelyrendered detail and a mastery of the application of the thin layers oftransparent oil paint that gave Jan's painting its special luminousqualities. The settingin both paintings recalls the terms of a painting contract that calledspecifically for "the inclusion of furnishings like those found in thehomes of 'seigneurs and bourgois'" (Harbison 51). His body is laid out on ashroud, and the contrast between the dead Christ and his mother's livingbody is not attained, as in van der Weyden's art, with the supple swoon ofthe Virgin but in her absolute stillness. TheNetherlandish painters are credited with the invention and development ofthe technique of oil painting as well as with various innovations such asthe new self-consciousness of the artist, the professionalization ofpainting, significant contributions to the arts of portraiture andlandscape painting, and a novel approach to pictorial realism. 51-52) and The Arnolfini Marriage (Smith pls. This has positive results, as in the identification of certainworks as Campin's rather than early works by van der Weyden. The Ghent Altarpiece and the Art of Jan van Eyck. Among those artists whoworked in the early part of the century, the output of the Tournai painterRobert Campin (c. Between them, on the heavilypopulated central panel, Bosch offered an inventive demonstration of "howGod's initial blessing of sexual union was turned by later generations intoan excuse for sensual excess and indulgence" (Harbison 79). Bosch's most famous painting is the impressive Garden ofEarthly Delights (c. 1435) is a prime example of theinfluence of painted sculpture in the shallow box-like space allotted tothe figures and the crisp, expressive lines of their drapery (Harbison fig.28). 144 -82) whose Portinari Altarpiece (c. The minutely detailed naturalism of theirpages prefigures the Netherlandish painters' interest in exacting,scrupulous attention to detail. 139 -1441) artisticduties at the court of the Duke of Burgundy and consisted of "decoratingcastles and contriving ephemeral displays, such as floats for ducalprocessions and food designs for banquets" (Harbison 48). 3-4) demonstrate majorfacets of his art. 1465-94), for example, was active in Bruges from1465 and, although his art "shows little or no trace of his Germanheritage," and he clearly borrowed from van der Weyden's compositions,there is no way of knowing where he was trained (Hand & Wolff 184). But it was the efforts of a painter such as Geertgen tot SintJans, who worked entirely within the accepted range of subjects and theconventional forms, who fit best into the mainstream. For, at the core ofhis unusual approach, Geertgen still remained as focused on the essentialgoal of spiritual inspiration as the rest of the brilliant painters of theera and sought only to use his innovative compositional means to intensifythe religious experience. This points up the sad lack of documentary evidence regarding earlyNetherlandish painting and the complex problem of attributions; a verylarge number of paintings cannot be identified with any painter's name andmany more have been ascribed to particular artists only on the basis ofstylistic analysis. 3) painting by Christus and the Nativity scene in Dieric Bouts'(c. 1 ) and theLamentation from Vienna (Lane fig. She sits with her hands foldedin front of her "and looks down at him helplessly," her absent touch andbewildered face are every bit as poignant as the more dramatic compositionsthat were so popular (Lane 95). Geertgen's inventiveness canalso be seen in the Lamentation. 3),the two painters clearly shared a model or one was the model for the other. New York: Harper & Row-Icon, 1984.Pächt, Otto. Early Netherlandish Painting. Christus' Brussels Lamentation(Hand & Wolff fig. 145 -1475). 64) display his unusual, "doll-likefigures [whose] wide-eyed innocence conveys a profound sincerity" (Lane153). As Lane notes the many Lamentations andDepositions of the fifteenth century generally followed the lead ofRogier's Madrid Deposition and "equated the Virgin's emotional torment withChrist's physical suffering" (95). The use of such disguised symbolism and the tendency toward greaternaturalism reach a high point in the art of Jan van Eyck. This visual culture included much more than panel painting, and therewere certainly important connections among the various forms of art as canbe seen from the few surviving examples. Therefore it was Rogier's themes, unlike the more elaborateimaginings of van Eyck such as the Ghent Adoration of the Lamb, that werethe models for the subsequent generation. 1378-1444) and that of the Master of Flémalle, issometimes regarded as distinct and sometimes as the work of one individual. In the panels at the top of the opened altarpiecevan Eyck depicted God enthroned, flanked by Mary and John the Baptist.This trio was flanked by pictures of angelic musicians and, at either end,the naked figures of Adam and Eve. Early Netherlandish and German Paintings. In his MadridDeposition, as Pächt notes, one can see his debt to a painting of the samesubject by Campin that is known only through the copy in a triptych atLiverpool (Lane fig. 2), for example, adopts van der Weyden's approach todraperies and his use of rhythmic composition of bodies to emphasize theemotional drama. But, as Harbison points out in regard totheir depiction of Saint Michael Battling the Dragon of the Apocalypseabove Mont Saint-Michel (c. . Princeton: Princeton UP, 1971.Smith, Alastair. The Altar and the Altarpiece: Sacramental Themes in Early Netherlandish Painting. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1986.Harbison, Craig. Rogier van der Weyden's(1399/14 -1464) Madrid Deposition (c. 15 5-1 ) (Harbison fig. Others have claimed different relationshipsamong the trio so that, as Lane notes, "there are, in fact, no less thannine possibilities for explaining this relationship" and nearly all of themhave advocates (155). Wolff suggests that it is most likely that the similarities "reflect acommon Rogerian model" but the entire question reflects the confusionsattendant on the identification of the oeuvre of any of the painters whofollowed van der Weyden. . The crystal beads hanging on the wall and the mirrorare symbols of the Virgin's purity and, "by extension, of virginity ingeneral" while the fruit placed on the sill refers to the state of grace ofthe first marriage of Adam and Eve, prior to the fall, and the little dogis a reference to fidelity (Smith 24). His nocturnal Nativity at London is an unusual choice, beinguncommon in the Netherlands, and he seems to set himself a problem in using"the chiaroscuro potential of the oil medium to the full" as he limits thelight sources to a tiny background angel and the Christ child himself sothat the Virgin is illuminated as if by a lamp while Joseph and the animalsare plunged into near darkness (Smith 52). The portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini, a very wealthy Italian merchantwho lived in Bruges, and his wife Giovanna is sometimes held to be awedding portrait, perhaps even a "visual marriage certificate" whichfeatures the witnesses, the artist and another man, reflected in the mirrorand Jan's signature statement, "written in the style of the legal script ofthe time" (Smith 22). Works CitedHand, John Oliver, and Martha Wolff. Nevertheless, the depiction of the world was an unusually strongpreoccupation of the Netherlandish painters. Jan's work, however, "had imitators here and there" but he "neverfound a continuer of his art" because his approach was far too reconditefor popular taste and, along with the intensive naturalism of his work, wassimply "a complete reversal of the emphasis dominant or customary" at thetime (Pächt 1 ). Hence Harbison'scontention that these particular pictures were not painted by Campin, theimportant painter of aristocratic commissions, but by someone who trainedunder him and served a bourgeois clientele. In these pictures the mundaneobjects familiar to, and valued by, the patrons are imbued with spiritualsignificance that is only "hidden in comparison with the more blatant,antinaturalistic symbolic attributes" featured in medieval art (Harbison52). 1475-76) (Harbison fig. A review ofthe accomplishments of the Netherlandish painters demonstrates, however,that their work was not important primarily in relation to the art of otherregions. In addition, the disguised symbolism contributes tothe marital theme. While Rogier was of the generation after van Eyck, hisinfluence was so broad that he is generally viewed as one of the foundersof the predominant style of early Netherlandish painting. In allthese respects, the painters of the fifteenth century had an enormousinfluence on the art of Europe in the centuries to come. 1415), their art was not so fully realist as itmight seem. But even more interestingly theperspective in their portrayals does not, like the others, raise them awayfrom earth toward heaven. London: Harvey Miller, 1997.Philip, Lotte Brand. 34) was sent toFlorence where it created a sensation due to its mastery of naturalisticdetail and oil technique. Geertgen, however, took the unusualcourse of having only the head and shoulders of the stiffening, back-archedcorpse of Christ rest on the Virgin's lap. In this picture the brothers showed a completed version of theAbbey of Saint-Michel that never existed. Although this has produced great confusion andcontroversy, it has also resulted in scrupulous attention being paid to thepaintings. This huge composition--which consists of 24individual paintings--demonstrates how van Eyck used aspects of his realistapproach symbolically. Two such works are the famous Mérode Altarpiece (Lane fig. Even though Jan van Eyck and Robert Campin took a radical course in theiriconology, and even though the mastery of light and naturalistic forminterested the painters, there was no essential 'advance' in this work.Instead, as Smith notes, painting was a rather conservative activity, "theexpression of a conservative society," and its best works are often thosethat offer no innovations "but which, with the often retrograde means attheir disposal, achieve a high intensity of expression" (14). The use of such settings also indicates, however, the manner in whichpatrons of different social levels "could adjust the format, nature, andpurpose of realistic imagery to their own perceived needs" (Harbison 5 ).The precise depiction of the town and the abbey in the Limbourgs' pagefunctioned as a piece of courtly elegance--on a par with the elaboratedecorations of the margins of the page--while the homelier presentation inCampin's paintings was more likely commissioned for a bourgeois patron and,in the case of the Madonna of the firescreen, for private use. Histendency to produce more refined types of symbolism leads to the "selectivetann[ing] on hands, face, and neck" for Adam and the swollen belly of thepregnant Eve which embody the curse placed on them at their expulsion fromthe Garden of Eden; Adam to earn his bread by sweat and toil and Eve tosuffer in childbirth (Harbison 84).
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