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Architecture
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This paper provides a significant discussion of the influence of Greco-Roman architecture on early ...... More...
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Paper Abstract:
This paper provides a significant discussion of the influence of Greco-Roman architecture on early American architecture in government, education and other public buildings. Major buildings showing the classical revival in architecture during the 18th to 20th centuries are analyzed to show the influence of Greek and Roman elements, particularly as they relate to democracy. Includes nine images in appendix.
Paper Introduction:
Architecture Classical architecture during the ancient Greek and Roman erasserved as the foundation of early American architecture which experienceda European and Classic Revival and still influences modern architecturetoday Various elements of both Greek and Roman architecture were adoptedby the founders of American government and education Columns capitals and frescos and friezes are the main elements of Greek architecture thatinfluence American architecture especially significant is the column TheDoric Ionic and Corinthian are the three styles of columns used inAmerican architecture The Doric temple
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The Doric temple would become an influence ongovernment monuments and other structures in America, and columns andcapitals would be mimicked. The arches and domes areclearly an influence of Roman architecture. Between the roofs and the tops of the columns a row oflintels comprised entablature whose "outward-facing surfaces provides aspace for sculptures known as friezes" ("Architecture" 3). As Robertson (67) explains of one Dorictemple, "There were two rows of sixteen-fluted stone columns or stylobates,in each room, and these carried upper rows of smaller stone columns.Fragments of the capitals have been found." Fyfe (94) maintains that three architectural subtleties wereinvolved in Greek temples: entasis, curvature, and inclination. The Baltimore Cathedral features a domed cross-plan and representsthe first "monumental Catholic Church in America" (Sullivan 1). Latrobeoffered a gothic and a classical design for the cathedral, with the latterbeing accepted. However, the "Greek stylecolumns" are the only significant remnant of the older facility that hasmade some dub the facility as the "Spaceship on Soldier Field" because thenew stadium bowl rises so high above and hangs over the Greek columns("Soldier" 3). "Style Mimicry: Architecture, Furniture, Costumes So Much Alike." Antiques & Collecting Magazine, 1 (1), March 1995, pp. New York: Clarendon Press, 1976.Fyfe, Theodore. An enormous Roman influenced dome structuresimilar to the capitol in Washington, D.C. The open-air coliseum-like natureof the stadium has for its façade a Greek designed entrance-way thatfeatures the typical rectangular shape with column enclosing it thatsupport a roof and provide room for entablature, on which are friezes.Soldier Field has been completely reconstructed twice, first serving uponits completion in 1923 as a memorial to Americans soldiers who died in wars("Soldier" 2). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture, 1-6.Jailer-Chamberlain, Mildred. This analysis has demonstrated theprimary elements of style from both ancient Greek and Roman architecturethat provided this influence that remains visible in contemporary times.As Andrews (42) notes, this influence was heightened as the foundingfathers forged a free nation, "The symbols, slogans, political ideas andarchitectural forms of the American Revolution are an impressive tribute tothe power of classical literature in molding the minds of men of action." While other styles of architecture have influenced differentarchitectural movements in American history, those of classicism or ancientarchitecture continue to play the greatest influence in governmentstructures on the national, state, and local levels. http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/ latrobe/cathangle.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/latr obe/cath.html&h=121&w=14 &sz=25 &tbnid=eaVv9- QGHBYJ:&tbnh=121&tbnw=14 &sa=X&oi=image_result&resnum=1&ct=image&cd=3,"Thomas Ustick Walter." Britannica Biography Collection, 2 8, http://web.ebscohost.com, 1-2.Turner, Frederick. AsAlan Greenburg notes "Classical architecture is still the most potent, themost appropriate, and the noblest language to express the relationship ofthe individual to the community in a republican democracy. This sentiment is echoed by architect Allan Greenburgwho argues "Jefferson was maybe our greatest architect ever" (Turner 55).Like with Greek and Roman structures, especially Roman, Jefferson feltgovernment and education buildings should send a specific message about thepower, values, and achievement of society and its heritage. European influence on American architecture was largely of Romanorigin. We see in his Baltimore Cathedral the significant borrowing ofelements from Greek architecture, with very few if any hints of Romanarchitecture save a small-domed tower (See Appendix Six). Once the site was rebuilt, the new standsdwarfed the columns, unlike the original construction. In 2 1 extensive renovations were planned which lost thestructure its designation as a landmark. In many areas like Philadelphia, the classical revival inarchitecture was observed. However, Jailer-Chamberlain (3 ) maintained that during the late17 s, "Although the Americans continued to emulate what was fashionable inEngland and France, allegiance shifted from the Romans to the ancientGreeks." We can readily see this shift by comparing the Capitol ofWilliamsburg to King's Chapel in Boston, Massachusetts (See Appendix Four). In conclusion, it is virtually impossible to discuss the eighteenththrough the twentieth centuries in American architecture without includingthe significant influence of Classical architecture on government. The Architectural Development of the Greek Stoa. Capitol that was constructed a bitearlier, though Latrobe's design for the Capitol did not make it tocompletion. Columns, capitals,and frescos and friezes are the main elements of Greek architecture thatinfluence American architecture, especially significant is the column. As one architecture historian notes, "Its design is modeledon the Greco-Roman architectural tradition, with Doric columns rising abovethe stands" ("Soldier" 2). Rome: Multigrafica, 1965."Greek Revival." Wikipedia, 2 8. ("Greek" 3). Architecture Classical architecture during the ancient Greek and Roman erasserved as the foundation of early American architecture, which experienceda European and Classic Revival and still influences modern architecturetoday. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldier_Field, 1-5.Sullivan, Maryann. The building is "marked by its central dome above arotunda and two wings, one for each chamber of Congress" ("United" 1). It's noaccident that Classical architecture's birth coincided with the birth ofthe ideal of democratic government in Athens nearly 3, years ago"(Turner 54). The University of Virginia is another educational building thatshows Jefferson's penchant for Greek and Roman elements in architecture,especially as the building was designed by him in constructed in 1826 (SeeAppendix Seven). Europeans, especially the wealthy, "continued to look to theirformer ruling country for the styles and much of the materials and artisansneeded for their homes, furnishings and dress" (Jailer-Chamberlain 29).One architect in Massachusetts, Robert Adam, had the greatest influence onthe style of architecture that would develop using European influences.However, Adam also encompassed a love of classical forms in architecture;"Adam's fascination with ancient forms stressed the importance of unity inexterior and interior designs and urged the benefits of delicacy, grace andlight" (Jailer-Chamberlain 29). Jefferson also designed Independent pavilions within one school asan "analogue for the federal union of self-governing states workingtogether for the common national good" (Kostof 625). London: Scala Books, 1988.Kostof, Spiro. The University of Virginia shows a high mixture of bothGreek and Roman architecture. As Martin (12)describes one fresco, "the fine private houses of Pella had peristylecourts and huge rooms paved with abstract geometrical mosaics and enlivenedwith powerful frescos of hunting and other scenes." Many of theseinfluences would be adopted in American architecture during the GreekRevival. Hellenistic Architecture. This was not the case with the original design of soldierfield in which the columns were more prominent in comparisons. Capitol was built by the combinedefforts and designs of three architects, William Thorton, Benjamin Latrobe,and Charles Bulfinch. J. Such examples would include theRoman aqueducts, the Pantheon, and the Coliseum. As one historian notes, "The famous exterior owesmost to Bullfinch but Charles Walter finally completed the project in 1865"(Andrews 42). This style of Greekinfluenced entrance or façade would become part of what was known as a"monumental national style" that characterized most government andeducational buildings as seen in the Baltimore Cathedral and University ofVirginia. Press, 1995.Martin, Roland. Early Classical Influences in America Early classical influences in American architecture stemmed fromboth European and a classical revival of the styles of ancient Greece andRome. A discussion of theinfluences from classical architecture through an analysis of theirstructure will show their significance to American democracy. One historian notes that "Thomas Jefferson was to proveinstrumental in introducing Greek Revival architecture to the UnitedStates" (Greek 3). Their roofs were generally wood beamscovered by terra cotta or marble tiles. There are also many Roman architectural elements apparent inAmerican architecture. While owing much to Greek architecture, Roman innovationallowed for achieving this goal on a much grander scale: "The use of vaultsand arches together with a sound knowledge of building materials enabledthem to achieve unprecedented success in the construction of imposingstructures for public use" ("Roman" 3). Thornton's Palladiandesign gave way to a higher degree of classicism in the interior.Latrobe's Senate Chamber exhibited "the classical cylinder supporting aquarter sphere-the Roman Pantheon cut in half" (Andrews 42). 37-42."Architecture of Ancient Greece." Wikipedia, 2 8. Like Greece, Roman architects ofpublic buildings designed them to impress others as well as to perform apublic function. "Classicism and the American Revolution." History Today, 37(1), January 1987, pp. Entablature provides room for friezes. Classical ideas and architecture were employed in American educationand government buildings in part because of their link to democracy. The arch, vault, and dome would bethe most significant innovations employed by the Romans that would come toinfluence early American architecture. Living Architecture: Greek. The Doricportico was the influence of Charles Bullfinch, whose ideas dramaticallychanged the structure when it was remodeled after the British bombed itduring the war of 1812. Sincethe time of antiquity the architecture of the ancient world has been asymbol of power and achievement. Allan Greenburg (55) argues that "Classicism is a language thatexpresses high, democratic aspirations. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_architecture, 1-6.Clark, Roger H., and Pause, Michael. The Classic Revival had an even greater impact on architecture inearly America. Built from 1793-183 , the U.S. Precedents in Architecture. The Roman style of architecture can still be seen throughout Europeand North America in the arches and domes of many government edifices andother buildings, from Bulfinch's Statehouse in Boston, MA, to ThomasJefferson's home Monticello in Virginia (See Appendix One and Two). The basicrectangular plan was enclosed by a colonnade portico of columns, with manyfeaturing a pronounced daces of columns leading to the cella("Architecture" 3). Latrobe's original design for the cathedral was even moreinfluenced by Roman design than the ultimate "onion dome" selected asLatrobe's original featured a "simple rounded dome" (Clark and Pause 185).The cathedral is a nod to the U.S. "Baltimore Cathedral." 1 March 2 8. One of the most significant ways that Jefferson helped fuel theGreek Revival in architecture was his appointment in 18 3 of architectBenjamin Latrobe as "surveyor of public buildings". The open arcaded loggia isdesigned to permit greater flow of air during hot summers in Virginia,which is why the solid-to-void proportion is higher than European styles.A government building used for meetings of members of the House ofBurgesses, Andrews (4 ) argues that architects were encouraged to mimicclassical architecture not just for decorative effect but with theknowledge that "the only way to become great and, if possible, inimitableis by imitation of the ancients with noble simplicity and calm grandeur."The Capitol of Williamsburg demonstrates these ancient qualities in itssimple but grand design. The Greeks understood the construction of themasonry arch but seldom employed it. In a democracy devoted to education for all and government ofthe people, classical ideals embodied in architecture continue to remainrelevant to contemporary American society and culture. Similarly, the pavilionswere designed to "demonstrate the correct use of a different Roman order ofsome variant of it" (Kostof 625). As Greenburgsays of Jefferson's architectural ideology: "Jefferson designed theVirginia State Capitol and Supreme Court based on the design of a Romantemple because he wanted to express the continuity of Classical ideas ofdemocracy and rule of law" (Turner 56). The Pantheon dome was thelargest single span dome for over a thousand years ("Roman" 3). "Classic Buildings in a Modern Age." American Enterprise, 8(2), Mar/Apr 1997, pp. By the early 18 s the Greek Revival in American architecture wouldbecome full blown. TheDoric, Ionic, and Corinthian are the three styles of columns used inAmerican architecture. Formerly with its own capitol and the site ofgovernment and educational advancement, architects like Thomas UstickWalter who would ultimately make changes to the Capitol like replacing thelow wooden dome with the "massive cast-iron" one ("Thomas" 1). Various elements of both Greek and Roman architecture were adoptedby the founders of American government and education. Education as well as government andreligious structures took on increasingly Greek elements of architecture.The Redwood Library in Newport, Rhode Island, was also constructed byHarrison, who uses the basic Greek elements of the rectangle and columnenclosed space in a striking resemblance to the Acropolis of ancient Greekcivilization (See Appendix Five). In 1774, Andrews (38) writes that Thomas Jefferson "favoredthe adoption of a classical motif to symbolize American resistance."Alexander Hamilton was also schooled in the classics and commonly citedGreek politics in his federalist pamphlets, arguing "the leagues among theOld Grecian republics were constantly as war with each other, and for wantof union fell prey to their neighbors" (Andrews 39). The University of Virginia features arcades that connect buildingsaround lawns with its most prominent feature being the Pantheon-likerotunda. The monumental design would become increasingly linked to therevival of classical influence in early American architecture and begin toshape an ever-increasing number of public buildings. Latrobe initiated a practice of having distinctly Americanmotifs like corncobs and tobacco leaves on his building, an idiosyncraticapproach that was to become typical of the American attitude to Greekdetailing" ("Greek" 3). A History of Architecture. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Capitol, 1-8. Latrobewould work on a number of significant public buildings in Washington, D.C.and Philadelphia each the seat of government at various points in Americanhistory. (See Appendix Eight). New York: Cambridge, 1945."Roman Architecture." Wikipedia, 2 8. Capitol Buildingin Washington, D.C. Capitol. Greek architecture featured "simple bracket capitals" that changedin material from one era of Greek architecture to the next (Coulton 27).In the Hellenistic period of Greek architecture frescos and friezes werecommon on public works and homes of the elite, ones that often depictedscenes of activities considered virtuous to Greeks. The RomanEmpire's use of concrete was an extremely significant influence inarchitecture as well. These expressionsare still sought by creators of modern government structures throughclassical elements of architecture.APPENDICESONEBulfinch's Statehouse, Boston, 1798[pic]TWOThomas Jefferson's home (Monticello)[pic]THREECapitol at Williamsburg, VA, 17 5[pic]FOURKing's Chapel, Boston, MA, 174 [pic]FIVERedwood Library, Newport, RI, 1747-175 [pic]SIXBaltimore Cathedral, Baltimore, MD, 18 4-1818[pic]SEVENUniversity of Virginia, Charlottesville, 1826[pic]EIGHTU.S. Classical ideas of democracy andthe rule of law favored by Jefferson are readily expressed in thisbuilding. 54-57."United States Capitol." Wikipedia, 2 8. The classical ideals expressed by Bulfinch's Statehouse andMonticello can also be seen to dominate the architecture of the Capitol ofWilliamsburg, Virginia (See Appendix Three). 29-33.Keaveney, Raymond. Latrobe said ofhimself, "I am a bigoted Greek in the condemnation of Roman architecture"("Greek" 3). If any building exhibits theseaspirations in design it is the architecture of the U.S. The Views of Rome. Oxford Univ. The first state university in the U.S., Jefferson "built thePantheon, at two-thirds of the scale, at the head of a rising mall flankedby interlinked columnar pavilions" (Kostof 625). S. TheForum is clearly an influence on many public arenas throughout the world.Keaveney (21), using the Forum as an example, notes that "The past isalways present in Rome, and it is not difficult to see how its majesty hasstimulated successive cultural revivals, from the Renaissance throughNeoclassicism and on to modern movements." This analysis will explore howancient or classical architecture influence early and subsequent Americanarchitecture in government and other public buildings. Built in 174 by Peter Harrison, the chapel makes use of the open spacedentrance through the use of the Greek elements of the rectangular platformenclosed by a series of columns. These are also on top of columns in the U.S.Capitol. Astatue on top of the dome is the Statue of Freedom. There are numerous elements of Greek and Roman architectureincorporated into the design of the U.S. Jefferson continually strove toexhibit ideas associated with democratic government and society in publicarchitecture, including both government and education structures. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_architecture, 1-5."Soldier Field." Wikipedia, 2 8. The first government and educationbuildings in America took on the same goals in expression through borrowingheavily from classical architecture. As ideas forgovernment and education began to take shape, so did a classic revival inideas and architecture among the founding fathers and in cities withsignificant colonies or roles in government, like New England,Philadelphia, New York, and ultimately Washington, D.C. Thomas alsoworked on a number of important Philadelphia government buildings like CityHall. The Greektemple was the "standard format" of Greek public buildings, like theParthenon, the temple complex at Selinunte ("Architecture" 3). Soldier Field now serves as the home of the National Football LeagueChicago Bears. A Handbook of Greek & Roman Architecture. This shows not onlythe power of Ancient civilization to influence modern generations, but alsothe success of its architectural structures in exhibiting power andachievement. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1967.Robertson, Donald. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985.Coulton, J. Jefferson did this in order to keep thefull spectrum of Classical design in the eyes of students who attended theschool. Capitol, Washington, D.C., 1793-183 [pic]NINESoldier Field, Chicago, 1924 (Reopened 2 3)[pic]Works CitedAndrews, Stuart. and other state capitols, sitsbehind a distinctly Greek influenced faced that once more relies on thesimple rectangular structure with columns enclosing it and supported andarched roof. It would be impossible not to think of the Roman coliseum or ofGreek architectural elements in looking at images of Soldier Field inChicago, Illinois (See Appendix Nine).
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